Chapter 2

AC Voltage Controller
Shahid Iqbal
Department of Electrical Engineering
COMSATS University Islamabad, Attock
campus
[email protected]

11/30/2020
 2.1 AC Voltage Controller

• Definition 1: If a thyristor is connected between ac supply and load, the

power flow can be controlled by varying the rms value of ac voltage
applied to the load; this type of power circuit is known as an ac voltage
controller.
• Definition 2: An ac voltage controller is a type of power converter which
is used to convert a fixed voltage, fixed frequency ac input supply to
obtain a variable voltage ac output.

• For Power transfer, two types of control are normally used:

a) ON-OFF Control
b) Phase-angle control
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 2.2 Applications of AC Voltage Controller

• The most common applications of ac

voltage controllers are:
1. Induction heating,
2. Industrial heating and domestic heating,
3. On-load transformer connection changing,
4. Lighting /Illumination control in ac power circuits,
5. Speed control of polyphase induction motors,
6. AC magnet controls.

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 2.3 Classification of AC Voltage Controllers

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 2.4 Principle of ON-OF Control
•Thyristors are switched ON for n number of cycles and switched off for m number
of cycle.
Vs n m

wt

Vo

io
wt

 Thyristors are switched ON and OFF at

zero crossings of the input voltage.
ig1 Gate pulse of T1
Consequently less harmonics are
generated. wt
 Suitable for applications that have ig2 Gate pulse of T2
high mechanical inertia and high
thermal constant, such as industrial wt
heating and ac motor drives.

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 2.4 Principle of ON-OF Control

• RMS value of output voltage

1/ 2
n 2 
0
2 2
 2Vs sin td 
V (rms)  
2(n  (t) 
m) n n
=Vs  Vs where k
n k, n
m current:
• RMS value of output m

I V (rms)
(rms)  R
• Output AC Power: n
k
PO  IO2 RMS   L m
R
• Power Factor: n

Po n
PF   k
VS I S n
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m 6
 Example 2.1

• A single phase full wave ac voltage controller working on ON-OFF control technique
has supply voltage of 230V, RMS 50Hz, load = 50. The controller is ON for 30
cycles and off for 40 cycles. Calculate, (a) ON & OFF time intervals, (b) RMS output
voltage, (c) Input P.F., and (d) Average and RMS thyristor currents.
Solution: Given is: VS(rms)=230 V, Vm=325.3 V, T=1/f =20ms. Therefore,
(a)Controller ON time is: nT= 3020ms =0.6sec.
Controller OFF time is: mT= 4020ms =0.8sec.
n 30
and k   0.4285
n  m 30 
40
(b) RMS output voltage: V (rms)  Vs k  230  0.428  150.6V

(c) Input Power Factor: PF  k  0.428 

(d) Average and RMS Thyristor 0.65
currents
Vm k 230  0.428 Vm k 230  0.428
I Thy(avg )    0.89 A I Thy(RMS )    2.13A
2RL 2
RL  50 50
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 2.5 Principle of Phase Control
• Limited control range (Vo(rms) can only be varied between 70.7% to 100%)
• Asymmetric output voltage and input current (contains dc component),
• This result in saturation of the input transformer.
• Suitable only for low power applications such as heating and lighting.
• Also known as unidirectional controller.

The rms and average value of output voltage is given by

VORMS   1 sin 2 
2 2     2VS
cos 1
S
V 2 Vdc  2
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 2.5 Principle of Phase Control
CONTROL CHARACTERISTIC OF SINGLE PHASE HALF-WAVE AC VOLTAGE
CONTROLLER WITH RESISTIVE LOAD

Trigger angle Vo(RMS) VO(RMS)

() 70.7% VS
100%
0 VS(RMS)
VS
30 0.992765 VS
60% S
60 0.949868 VS V
90 0.866025 VS
120 0.77314 VS 20% VS
150 0.717228 VS
0.707106 VS 0 60 120
180 180
Trigger angle  in
degrees
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 Example 2.2

A single phase half-wave ac voltage controller has a load resistance 50Ω , input ac
supply voltage is 230V RMS at 50Hz. The input supply transformer has a turns ratio of
1:1. If the thyristor T1 is triggered at =60. Calculate, (a) RMS output voltage, (b)
output power, (c) RMS and average load currents, (d) input power factor, and (e)
average and RMS thyristor currents.
Solution: (a) RMS output voltage: Vo(RMS 1    sin120 
 230 2   2  218.5V
) 2  3 
(b) Output power: (c) Input Power Factor:
P 954 
P  
o(RMS ) 2
 218.5   2 PF 
VS50
IS

230 
 0.95
RL 954W
V 50 218.5
(d) Average and RMS load currents:

I o(RMS 
Vo(RMS )
RL 
218
50 4.36 A Io(avg )  2RL
2

2Vs cos 1  325 cos 60 1  0.52
) A
(e) Average and RMS thyristor currents: 50

Vm (1  cos) 325 1.5 Vm

IT  1 
IT (avg )    1.55A
2RL     sin120  2.92 A
(RMS ) 2  2
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2 50
 Example 2.3

A single phase half wave ac regulator using one SCR in anti-parallel with a diode
feeds 1 kW, 230 V heater. Find load power for a firing angle of 45.
Solution: Given is:  = 45=/4, VS=230V.
Resistance of heater is

Ro  
o,rms 2
  230 2  52.9
P
V L 1000
RMS output voltage
Vo(RMS  230 1    sin 90 
2   2  224.72V
) 2  4 

RMS current through resistor

I Vo(RMS ) 224.72
RL (RMS )    4.24 A
RL 52.9
Load power is
PL  I o2  RL  4.252  52.9 
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 2.6 Single-Phase Bidirectional Controller with
Resistive Load
2.6.1 Single-Phase Bidirectional Controller
• T1 is turned on during positive half •T2 is turned on during negative half
cycle with delay angle . cycle with delay angle +.
•By varying  from 0 to , Vo can be
varied from Vs to 0.

The rms value of output voltage is

1 sin 2 
    
V 
L RMS  S 
V  2

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 2.6 Single-Phase Bidirectional Controller with
Resistive Load
2.6.2 Single-Phase Bidirectional Controller with Common Cathode
•T1, D1 conduct together during +ve half cycle and T2, D2 conduct together
during negative half cycle.
•Because of common cathode only one isolation circuit is required.
• Efficiency reduced because of two conducting devices.

The rms value of output voltage is

1 sin 2 
    
V 
L RMS  S 
V  2

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 2.6 Single-Phase Bidirectional Controller with
Resistive Load
2.6.3 Single-Phase Bidirectional Controller with One Thyristor
• Good for controller with resistive load.
•For inductive load, thryistor may not turn off in every half cycle, resulting in
loss of control. Hence it require detecting zero crossing to turn off thryistor.
• Less efficiency, because of three conducting devices.

D1 i D3
+
T1

D4 D2 +
VS R
Vo
_
-

The rms value of output voltage is

1 sin 2 
    
V L RMS  S 
V  2

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 2.6 Single-Phase Bidirectional Controller with
Resistive Load
CONTROL CHARACTERISTIC OF SINGLE PHASE FULL-WAVE AC VOLTAGE
CONTROLLER WITH RESISTIVE LOAD

Trigger angle Vo(RMS) VO(RMS)

()
VS
0 VS
30 0.9854 VS
0.8969 VS 0.6VS
60
90 0.707 VS
120 0.4421VS 0.2 VS
150 0.1698 VS
180 0 0 60 120
180
Trigger angle  in
degrees
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 Example 2.4

A single phase full wave controller has an input voltage of 120 V (RMS) and a load
resistance of 6 ohm. The firing angle of thyristor is /2 . Find, (a) RMS output voltage,
(b) power output, (c) input power factor, and (d) average and RMS thyristor current.
Solution: (a) RMS output voltage:

1   sin180 
Vo(RMS )  120      2  84.85V
  2

(b) Output power: (c) Input Power Factor:

P 1200 
P  
o(RMS ) 2
 84.85 
2 PF  
VS6I S 120 
 0.707
RL 1200W
V 6 84.85
(d) Average and RMS thyristor currents:

Vm (1  cos) 169.7 1.0 IT Vm 1    sin180 

IT (avg )    4.5A    
(RMS ) L

  2  2   10 A
2R 
2RL  
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 Example 2.5

Find the RMS and average current flowing through the heater shown in figure. The
delay angle of both the SCRs is 45.
SCR1 io
Solution: +

Given is:  = 45=/4, VS=220V. 1- 1 kW, 220V

220V SCR2
heater
Resistance of heater is: ac

Ro 
 Vo  
2
2202 
L 48.4
P 1000
RMS output voltage

1    sin 90 
Vo(RMS )  220    2  209.8V
  4  
RMS current through resistor

I Vo(RMS ) 209.8 and

RL (RMS )    4.334 A IRL (avg )  0
RL 48.4

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 2.7 Single-Phase Bidirectional Controller with RL
Load
• T1 is fired during positive half cycle. • T2 is fired during negative half
cycle.

•Thyristor continues to conduct until i(t) reaches

zero at t=
• The conduction angle =-  of Thyristor
is the Load
upon delay angle  and load angle .
depend where
Z  R  
2 impedance.
• The output load current is
1   L 2 is the Load
V t and   tan  L  impedance angle.
Z t     A e 
i  m sin  R 
O 1

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 2.7 Single-Phase Bidirectional Controller with RL
Load
• The constant A1 can be determined from initial conditions: at t=, i1=0.
From previous equation A1 is found as follow
R 
 V 
A1  e  L m    
 Z sin
• Substituting A1 yields
 R
t   
iO  V sin t    sin 
m
 e 

L
 ; Where   t 
Z  

• The equation also give Thyristor current during t =  to .
• The extinction angle , can be estimated by using the condition that
i1=0 , at t= in the above equation and is given by the relation
R
   
sin       sin   
• The extinction  angle can be determined from this transcendental
e L
equation by using the iterative method of solution.

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 2.7 Single-Phase Bidirectional Controller with RL
Load
• Once  is known, the conduction angle of thyristor can be found from
- .
• The rms output voltage is V  V s  1     sin 2  sin 2 1/ 2
    
2 2 
• The rms thyristor current can be found as
2 1/ 2 2 1/ 2
1   Vs  1   sin(t  )  sin(  )e(R / L)( / d 
IT (rms)    i
 2 
 d (t) 

Z   (t)
t)
 

• The rms output current can be found by summing the rms current of
both thyristors
2
1/ 2
2 
I 

IT1  IT 2
 2IT
 
• The average current of each thyristor can be found as

 d(t)
  2V   2 
 1 i d (t)  s
sin(t  )  sin(  (R / L)( /

IT (ave)    t)
 2 
  2Z   )e
 

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 2.7 Single-Phase Bidirectional Controller with RL
Load
•The short gating pulses are not suitable for controllers with inductive loads. If
short pulses are used then only one thyristor will operate causing output current
to be asymmetric.
•Continuous gate pulse as shown below can solve this problem, however it results
in larger swithing loss of thyristor and requires a large isolating transformer for the
gating circuit.
•To overcome these problems a train of short pulses are practically used as shown
below.

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 2.7 Single-Phase Bidirectional Controller with RL
Load
•Waveform of input
voltage, output voltage,
output current, and
thyristor voltage.

• is the hold-off angle

after the zero crossing of
negative going current.

•If,   , then the load

voltage and current can
be sinusoidal.

•If,   , then the load

current would be non-
sinusoidal
and discontinuous.

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 Example 2.6

A single-phase full-wave ac voltage controller is used for

controlling the power flow from 230 V, 50 HZ ac source
into a load circuit consisting of R=10  and L= 10 mH. The
delay angle of both the thyristors are equal, 𝛼1 = 𝛼2 =
𝜋3 and current extinguishing angle is 𝛽= 197.45° .
Determine,
a) the maximum load current Im
b) the load impedance angle ,
c) the conduction angle of the thyristor
d) the RMS output voltage, and
e) the input power factor.
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 Example 2.7

A single phase full wave ac voltage controller supplies

an RL load. The input supply voltage is 230V, RMS at
50Hz. The load has L = 10mH, R = 10, the delay
angle of thyristors and are equal, where 1=2=/3.
Determine
a) the conduction angle of the thyristor
b) the RMS output voltage, and
c) the input power factor. Comment
on the type of operation.

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 Example 2.8

A single phase voltage controller is employed for

controlling the power flow from 220 V, 50 Hz source
into a load circuit consisting of R = 4 W and wL = 6 W.
Calculate the following
a) Control range of firing angle
b) Maximum value of RMS load current
c) Maximum power and power factor
d) Maximum value of average and RMS thyristor
current.

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 2.8 Single-Phase Transformer Connection Changers
•Figure shows a 1-phase transformer • Turn ratio is such that
connection with 2 secondary primary
if instantaneous voltage is
changer windings. vp  2Vp sint
the secondary instantaneous
voltages are
v1  2V1 sin t
and
v2  2V2 sin t
• Vo = v1, when only T3 and T4
operates.
• Vo= v1+ v2, when only T1 and T2
operates.
• Gating pulses can be controlled
to vary load voltages.
• The rms value of load voltage can be varied within three possible ranges:
0  V  V1 , 0  V  V1+V2  , V1  V  V1+V2 
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 2.8 Single-Phase Transformer Connection Changers
•Control Range 1 (Figure c): T1 and T2 are off & T3
and T4 operates. The rms load voltage is
1/ 2
V  V 1  1     sin 2 
 2
  

•Control Range 2 (Figure d): T3 and T4 are off &T1

and T2 operates. The rms load voltage is
V  V 1 V
1/ 2
2  1     sin 2 
 2 
 
•Control range 3 (Figure e): At t=0, T3 is fired,


thus Vo =v1. At t=, T1 is fired and T3 is RB, so Vo

= v1 +v2. At t=, T1 is SC and T4 is turned on, so
Vo = v1. At t=+ , T2 is turned on and T4 is RB
and Vo = -(v1 +v2). At t=2, T2 is SC, T3 is turned
on again and cycle is repeated. RMS Vo is
1/ 2
V 2  sin 2 sin 2 

V1 2 V 2 
V   1          2 
    2  
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
 2.8 Single-Phase Transformer Connection Changers
Waveforms for RL Type Load

•Figure shows the waveforms for RL

type load for  > .
• The load current is

2V
i  Z 1 sin(t  )
1/ 2
where Z   R 2  (L) 2 
and   tan  1 (L / R)
• The firing angle for T3 and T4 is zero.
•Where as firing angle  for T1 and T2
is 180 degrees or assume that these
thyristors are OFF.

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 2.8 Single-Phase Transformer Connection Changers
Waveforms for RL Type Load
• With RL type load the gating circuit of
connection changer must be carefully designed.

•If T1 is turn on at t=, where , the second

winding would be short circuited because T4 is
still conducting.

• Therefore, control circuit should be designed

such that T1 should not be turn on until T4 turns
off and io0.

• Similarly, T2 should not be turn on until T3

turns off and io0.

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 Example 2.9

A single-phase transformer tap changer (shown in Figure) is

feeding a purely resistive load of 6 Ω from an ac source of 230 V
rms at 50 Hz. The secondary voltages V1 and V2 are 140V and
120 V respectively. The system is operating in control range 3
(V1  Vo  (V1+ V2)) and firing angle of thyrsitors T1 and T2 is 90.
Determine
a) The rms output voltage Vo,
b) the rms current of thyrsitor T1 and T2,
c) the rms currents of T3 and T4, and
d) the input power factor.

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 Example 2.10

A single-phase transformer tap changer (shown in Figure) is

feeding a purely resistive load of 10 Ω from an ac source of 240
V rms at 60 Hz. The secondary voltages V1 and V2 are 120V and
120 V respectively. The rms load voltage is 180V. Determine
a) The delay angle of thyristors
b) the rms current of thyrsitor T1 and T2,
c) the rms currents of T3 and T4, and
d) the input power factor.

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 2.9 AC Voltage Controller with PWM Control
Topology and Gating Signals
Features: Improve input power factor

• Switches S1 and S2 are turned on and off several times during the
positive and negative half cycles of the input voltage.
• S  andS provides the freewheeling paths for the load current.
1 2
• Diodes prevents reverse voltage from appearing across the switches.
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 2.9 AC Voltage Controller with PWM Control
Output Voltage and Load Current

•For resistive load, the load

current resembles output
voltage.

•For an RL load, the load

current rises in the positive
or negative direction when
switches S1 or S2 is turned
on respectively.

•Similarly, the load current

falls when either S1 or S2
is turned on.

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 2.10 Cycloconverters
•The AC voltage controllers discussed so far can provide only fixed
frequency variable output voltage. In many applications (e.g. ac motor
drives) output voltage with variable frequency are required.
• Variable output voltage at variable frequency can be obtained
 by employing a two stage converter system (1st stage: AC-DC
converter, 2nd stage: DC-AC inverter), or
 by using a cycloconverter.
•Cycloconverters are direct frequency changers, i.e. they converts ac
power at one frequency to ac power at another frequency by ac-ac
conversion. So they eliminate the need of intermediate converters.
•Cycloconverters are naturally commutated converters and their
maximum frequency is limited to value that is only a fraction of the
source frequency.
•Consequently, major applications of cycloconverters are low speed ac
motor drives ranging up to 15MW with frequencies from 0 to 20 Hz.
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 2.10.1 Single-Phase Cycloconverters

• Figure (a) shows a single-phase

cycloconverter.
•It consists of two single-phase controlled
converters operating as bridge rectifiers.
•The delay angles are such that the output
voltage of one converter is equal and
opposite to other.
•If converter P is operating alone, the
average output voltage is positive and if
converter N is operating, the output
voltage is negative.
•Figure (b) shows the simplified equivalent
circuit of the dual converter.
•If p is the delay angle of the positive
converter then delay angle of the
negative converter is n=-p.

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 2.10.1 Single-Phase Cycloconverters

•Figure (c) shows the waveforms for

the output voltage and gating
signals of positive and negative
converters .
•During the first half period of the
output frequency, converter P
operates as normal controlled
rectifier with delay angle . This
done by gating T1 and T2 at p & T3
and T4 at + p.
•During the second half period,
with N -operates
delay angle
converter p, that is by
as gating T1 and T2
normal at - p and gating T3 and T4 at
2-  p.
controlled rectifier
• The output voltage of P converter is equal and opposite to N converter.
Vdc2  Vdc1
• The instantaneous values of two output voltages may not be equal. It is
possible
for large harmonic currents to circulate within the converters.
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 Example 2.11

The input voltage to a single-phase cycloconverter

is 120 V (rms), 60 Hz. The load resistance is 5Ω and
load inductance is L=40 mH. The frequency of
output voltage is 20 Hz. If converters are operated
as semi-converters such that 0 and the delay
angle is p = /3, determine
a) the rms value of output voltage V ,
b) the rms current of each thyristor IR , and
c) the input power factor.
March 14, 2016
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 2.10.2 Three-Phase Cycloconverters
Three-phase to single-phase cycloconverter
•A three-phase/single-phase cyclo
converter is shown in figure (a).
•It consists of two controlled
rectifiers.
•Waveforms for an output
frequency of 12 Hz are shown in
figure (b).
•During first half period of output
frequency, operate converter P as
a normal three-phase controlled
rectifier with delay angle  p   .

•During the second half period,

operate converter N as normal
controlled rectifier with delay
angle n     p .

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 2.10.3 Three-Phase Cycloconverters
Three-phase to three-phase cycloconverter
•A three-phase to three phase
cycloconverter is shown in Figure
(b).
•This kind of converter is used for
control of ac motors.
• A three-phase cycloconverter
shown in previous slide can be
extended to provide three-phase
output by having 6 three-phase
converter as shown in Figure (a).
•Each phase consists of 6 thyristors
as shown in Figure (b), and a total
18 thyristors are required.
•If six full-wave three-phase
converters are used, 36 thristors
would be required.

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