Language and Brain

By Soner TARI
 Language Acquisition
• Language is human specific
• Critical Period in First Language:
– Acquisition of L1 is impaired after puberty
• Critical Period in Second Language:
– Acquisition of L2 is impaired after puberty
Evolution of Language:
– Gestures were important
 Birdsong
• Similar to human languages in sensitive period
• Stages of development:
– Initial exposure to the song of tutor (father)
– Successive approximation of produced song to the st
ored model
– Crystalization of the song in permanent form
• Deafening and distorting studies by Konishi
• Brain damage studies confirm vocal control cent
ers view (Rosenzweig, p. 611)
 Nonhuman Primates
• Vocalizations look preprogramed, serving
specific purposes only
• Initiated by sub-cortical areas like limbic sy
stem
• But for vocalization and decoding, they als
o use left hemisphere
 Teaching Language to Apes
• Throughout the history, all efforts to teach
speech to animals have failed
• ASL was thought to chimpanzees to some
extent
• Lana Project at Emory University:
– Try to teach Yerkish to chimps
– Chimps are able to form novel and meaningful
chains
Deep down and Internal represe
ntation
(Savage-Rumbaugh vs. Pinker)
• Savage-Rumbaugh believes that
– Language ability of chimps is underestimated
– Chimps can understand speech (but can’t pro
duce)
– Language comprehension comes before spee
ch for a several million years
– Intention to communicate is important
• Pinker says “they just don’t get it…”
 Language Disorders

• Egyptians reported spe

ech loss after blow to h
ead 3000 years ago
• Broca (1861) finds dam
age to left inferior fronta
l region (Broca’s area) o
f a language impaired p
atient, in postmortem an
alysis
 Language Disorders (2)
• In language disorders
– 90-95% of cases, damage is to the left hemisp
here
– 5-10% of cases, to the right hemisphere
• Wada test is used to determine the hemisp
heric dominance
– Sodium amydal is injected to the carotid artery
– First to the left and then to the right
 Language Disorders (3)
• Paraphasia:
– Substitution of a word by a sound, an incorrect word, or an
unintended word
• Neologism:
– Paraphasia with a completely novel word
• Nonfluent speech:
– Talking with considerable effort
• Agraphia:
– Impairment in writing
• Alexia:
– Disturbances in reading
 Three major types of Aphasia
Rosenzweig: Table 19.1, p. 615

• Borca’s aphasia
– Nonfluent speech
• Wernicke’s aphasia
– Fluent speech but unintelligible
• Global aphasia
– Total loss of language
Others: Conduction, Subcortical, Transcortical
Motor/Sensory (see also Kandel, Table 59-1)
Brain areas involved in Language
 Broca’s Aphasia
Brodmann 44, 45

• Lesions in the left inferior frontal region (Broca’s

area)
• Nonfluent, labored, and hesitant speech
• Most also lost the ability to name persons or subj
ects (anomia)
• Can utter automatic speech (“hello”)
• Comprehension relatively intact
• Most also have partial paralysis of one side of th
e body (hemiplegia)
• If extensive, not much recovery over time
Wernicke’s Aphasia
Brodmann 22, 30

• Lesions in posterior of the left superior temporal

gyrus, extending to adjacent parietal cortex
• Fluent speech
• But contains many paraphasias
– “girl”-“curl”, “bread”-“cake”
• Syntactical but empty sentences
• Cannot repeat words or sentences
• Unable to understand what they read or hear
• Usually no partial paralysis
 Wernicke-Geschwind Model
1. Repeating a spoken word

• Arcuate fasciculus is the bridge from the Wernicke’s

area to the Broca’s area
 Wernicke-Geschwind Model
2. Repeating a written word

• Angular gyrus is the gateway from visual cortex to Wernicke’s area

• This is an oversimplification of the issue:
– not all patients show such predicted behavior ( Howard, 1997)
 Sign Languages
• Full-fledged languages, created by hearing-
impaired people (not by Linguists):
– Dialects, jokes, poems, etc.
– Do not resemble the spoken language of the same
area (ASL resembles Bantu and Navaho)
– Pinker: Nicaraguan Sign Language
– Another evidence of the origins of language
(gestures)
• Most gestures in ASL are with right-hand, or else
both hands (left hemisphere dominance)
• Signers with brain damage to similar regions
show aphasia as well
 Signer Aphasia
• Young man, both spoken and sign language:
– Accident and damage to brain
– Both spoken and sign languages are affected
• Deaf-mute person, sign language:
– Stroke and damage to left-side of the brain
– Impairment in sign language
• 3 deaf signers:
– Different damages to the brain with different
impairments to grammar and word production
 Spoken and Sign Languages
• Neural mechanisms are similar
• fMRI studies show similar activations for b
oth hearing and deaf
• But in signers, homologous activation on t
he right hemisphere is unanswered yet
 Dyslexia
• Problem in learning to read
• Common in boys and left-handed
• High IQ, so related with language only
• Postmortem observation revealed anomalies in t
he arrangement of cortical cells
– Micropolygyria: excessive cortical folding
– Ectopias: nests of extra cells in unusual location
• Might have occurred in mid-gestation, during cell
migration period
 Acquired Dyslexia = Alexia
• Disorder in adulthood as a result of disease or
injury
• Deep dyslexia (pays attn. to wholes):
– “cow” -> “horse”, cannot read abstract words
– Fails to see small differences (do not read each letter)
– Problems with nonsense words
• Surface dyslexia (pays attn. to details):
– Nonsense words are fine
• Suggests 2 different systems:
– One focused on the meanings of whole words
– The other on the sounds of words
 Electrical Stimulation
• Penfield and Roberts (1959): During epilepsy sur
gery under local anesthesia to locate cortical lan
guage areas, stimulation of:
– Large anterior zone:
• stops speech
– Both anterior and posterior temporoparietal cortex:
• misnaming, impaired imitation of words
– Broca’s area:
• unable comprehend auditory and visual semantic material,
• inability to follow oral commands, point to objects, and under
stand written questions
 Studies by Ojemann et al.
• Stimulation of the brain of an English-Spanish bi
lingual shows different areas for each language
• Stim of inferior premotor frontal cortex:
– Arrests speech, impairs all facial movements
• Stim of areas in inferior, frontal, temporal, pariet
al cortex:
– Impairs sequential facial movements, phoneme ident
ification
• Stim of other areas:
– lead to memory errors and reading errors
• Stim of thalamus during verbal input:
– increased accuracy of subsequent recall
 PET by Posner and Raichle
• Passive hearing of words activates:
– Temporal lobes
• Repeating words activates:
– Both motor cortices, the supplemental motor cortex,
portion of cerebellum, insular cortex
• While reading and repeating:
– No activation in Broca’s area
• But if semantic association:
– All language areas including Broca’s area
• Native speaker of Italian and English:
– Slightly different regions
– Due to phonetic alphabet of Italian… (“ghotia”)
 PET by Damasio’s
• Different areas of left hemisphere (other than Bro
ca’s and Wernicke’s regions) are used to name
(1) tools, (2) animals, and (3) persons
• Stroke studies support this claim
• Three different regions in temporal lobe are used
• ERP studies support that word meaning are on t
emporal lobe (may originate from Wernicke’s are
a):
– “the man started the car engine and stepped on the p
ancake”
– Takes longer to process if grammar is involved
 Williams Syndrome
• Caused by the deletion of a dozen genes from on
e of the two chromosomes numbered 7
• Shows dissociation between language and intellig
ence, patients are:
– Fluent in language
– But cannot tie their shoe laces, draw images, etc.
• Developmental process is altered:
– Number skills good at infancy, poor at adulthood
– Language skills poor at infancy, greatly improved in adu
lthood
– Guest speaker in the colloquium, Annette Karmiloff-Smi
th, claims the otherwise:
• Development alters the end result of the syndrome (?)
 Lateralization of the Brain
• Human body is asymmetrical: heart, liver,
use of limbs, etc.
• Functions of the brain become lateralized
• Each hemisphere specialized for particular
ways of working
• Split-brain patients are good examples of
lateralization of language functions
 Lateralization of functions
(approximate)

• Left-hemisphere: • Right-hemisphere:
– Simultaneous analysis
– Sequential analysis • Synthetic
• Analytical – Visual-Spatial skills
• Problem solving • Cognitive maps
– Language • Personal space
• Facial recognition
• Drawing
– Emotional functions
• Recognizing emotions
• Expressing emotions
– Music
 Split-brain
• Epileptic activity spread from one hemisphere to t
he other thru corpus callosum
• Since 1930, such epileptic treated by severing the
interhemispheric pathways
• At first no detectible changes (e.g. IQ)
• Animal research revealed deficits:
– Cat with both corpus callosum and optic chiasm severe
d
– Left-hemisphere could be trained for symbol:reward
– Right-hemisphere could be trained for inverted symbol:r
eward
 Left vs. Right Brain
• Pre and post operation studies showed that:
– Selective stimulation of the right and left hemisphere
was possible by stimulating different parts of the body
(e.g. right/left hand):
• Thus can test the capabilities of each hemisphere
– Left hemisphere could read and verbally communicate
– Right hemisphere had small linguistic capacity:
recognize single words
– Vocabulary and grammar capabilities of right is far less
than left
– Only the processes taking place in the left hemisphere
could be described verbally
 Normal Cortical Connections

Language
Dominant Side
Broca’s Motor Motor
Area Cortex Cortex

What
changes if
the corpus
Callosal callosum is
Connections damaged?
 The Split Brain Studies

Language
Dominant Side
Broca’s Motor Motor
Area Cortex Cortex

How about the

Bunny?
 The Split Brain Studies

Language
Dominant Side
Broca’s Motor Motor
Area Cortex Cortex

The left hand can

point to it, but you
can’t describe it!
 Other studies
• Right ear advantage in dicothic listening:
– Due to interhemispheric crossing
• Words in left-hemisphere, Music in right
– Supported by damage and imaging studies
– But perfect-pitch is still on the left
• Asymmetry in planum temporale:
– Musicians with perfect-pitch has 2x larger PT
– Evident in newborns, thus suggesting innate basis for
cerebral specialization for language and speech
 Finally
• Precision of stimulus analysis in the brain is r
educed on the midline areas of the body
• Speech organs (vocal tract, tongue, larynx, et
c.) are in the midline
• Asymmetry of motor control of speech areas
(sidedness in language) provides unchalleng
ed control
– Observed in songbirds too
• But hemispheric dominance is not absolute, b
oth sides are necessary:
– After commisurotomy, left is better than right, but b
oth are affected
 Effects of Aging on Nervous
System
• Gradual decline in sensory and motor
function
• Reflexes slow
• Size and weight of brain decrease
– Decreased short-term memory in most people
– Long-term memory unaffected or improved