Stabilized Mud Block” as

a
green building material
 Introduction

 Stabilized mud block (SMB) or pressed earth block is a building material made
primarily from damp soil compressed at high pressure to form blocks. If the blocks
are stabilized with a chemical binder such as Portland cement they are called
compressed stabilized earth block (CSEB) or stabilized earth block (SEB).
Creating SMBs differs from rammed earth in that the latter uses a larger formwork
into which earth is poured and manually tamped down, creating larger forms such
as a whole wall or more at one time rather than building blocks and adobe which
is not compressed. Stabilized mud block uses a mechanical press to form block
out of an appropriate mix of fairly dry inorganic subsoil, non-expansive clay,
aggregate, and sometimes a small amount of cement.
 Typically, around 3000 psi is applied in compression, and the original soil volume
is reduced by about half. The compression strength of properly made SMB can
meet or exceed that of typical cement or adobe brick. Building standards have
been developed for SMB.
 Soil Identification

 A very few laboratories can identify soils for building purposes. But soil identification can
be performed by anybody with sensitive analyses. The main points to examine are:
• Grain size distribution, to know quantity of each grain size
• Plasticity characteristics, to know the quality and properties of the binders (clays and silts)
• Compressibility, to know the optimum moisture content, which will require the minimum of
compaction energy for the maximum density.
• Cohesion, to know how the binders bind the inert grains.
• Humus content, to know if they are organic materials which might disturb the mix.
 Soil stabilization
 Many stabilizers can be used. Cement and lime are the most common ones. Others, like
chemicals, resins or natural products can be used as well.
 The selection of a stabilizer will depend upon the soil quality and the project
requirements:
 Cement will be preferable for sandy soils and to achieve quickly a higherstrength.
 Lime will be rather used for very clayey soil, but will take a longer time to harden and to
give strong blocks.
 Soil Suitability and Stabilization

 Not every soil is suitable for earth construction and CSEB in particular.
 But with some knowledge and experience many soils can be used for producing
CSEB.
 Topsoil and organic soils must not be used.
 Identifying the properties of a soil is essential to perform, at the end, good
quality products. Some simple sensitive analysis can be performed after a short
training.
 A soil is an earth concrete and a good soil for CSEB is more sandy than clayey. It
has these proportions:
 Fig ;Proportions
According to the percentage of these 4 components, a soil with more
gravel will be called gravely, another one with more, sand, sandy,
others silty or clayey, etc. The aim of the field tests is to identify in
which of these four categories the soil is. From the simple classification
it will be easy to know what to do with this soil.
 Raw Materials

 Soil characteristics and climatic conditions of an area must be evaluated before

manufacturing soil building blocks. A dry climate, for example, needs different soil blocks
from those used in temperate, rainy or tropical areas. All soils are not suitable for every
building need. The basic material, however, required to manufacture compressed
stabilized earth building blocks is a soil containing a minimum quantity of silt and clay so
as to facilitate cohesion. Soils are variable and complex materials, whose properties can
be modified to improve performance in building construction by the addition of various
stabilizers. All soils consist of disintegrated rock, decomposed organic matter and soluble
mineral salts. Soil types are graded according to particle size using a system of
classification widely used in civil engineering. This classification system, based on soil
fractions shows that there are 4 principal soil fractions - gravel, sand, silt and clay.
 For soil stabilization, the clay fraction is most important because of its ability to provide
cohesion within a soil. The manufacture of good quality, durable compressed stabilized
earth blocks requires the use of soil containing fine gravel and sand for the body of the
block, together with silt and clay to bind the sand particles together. An appropriate type of
stabilizer must be added to decrease the linear expansion that takes place when water is
added to the soil sample. The stabilizer has further benefits that are described in a later
section.
 Preparation of Raw Materials

 The Requirements for Preparation

 The basic materials required for the production of compressed stablised earth
building blocks are soil, stabiliser, and water.
 The stabiliser, whether lime or cement or some other material, is usually
available in powder or liquid form, ready for use.
 The soil may be wet or dry when it is first obtained, and will probably not be
homogeneous.
 In order to have uniform soil, it is often necessary to crush it so that it can pass
through a 5 to 6mm mesh sieve.
 Different soil types may also need to be used together so as to obtain good
quality products.
 For instance, a heavy clay may be improved by addition of a sandy soil.
•It is not only important to measure the optimum proportion of ingredients, but also to
mix them thoroughly.
•Mixing brings the stabiliser and soil into direct contact, thus improving the physical
interactions as well as the chemical reaction and cementing action. It also reduces the
risk of uneven production of low quality blocks.
•Various types and sizes of mixing equipment are available on the market.
•Breaking up Soil
•In most developing countries the soil is usually dry when dug out of the borrow pit or it
will dry soon after digging. Simple hand tools are available as well as a range of more
complicated machinery which can be used to reduce the soil grains to an appropriate
size.
•In order to obtain a uniform mix of the mineral components, water and stabiliser,lumps
more than 200mm in diameter after excavation must be broken up. Grains with a
homogeneous structure, such as gravel and stones, must be left intact, and those
having a composite structure (clay binder) broken up so that at least 50 percent of the
grains are less than 5mm in diameter. The soil must be dry as wet soil can only be
handled by certain mechanised systems.
•Grinding followed by screening
•The material is pressed between two surfaces - a rather inefficient and tedious process
in which bigger stones are broken up, however, only simple machinery is required. The
broken up lumps of soil are then passed through a screen.
 Pulverisation of soil
 The material is hit with great force so it disintegrates. The machinery required
is complex but performs satisfactorily. At the delivery end, any large pieces left
can be removed by means of screen.
 Sieving
 Soil contains various sizes of grain, from very fine dust up to pieces that are
still too large for use in block production. The oversized material should be
removed by sieving, either using a built-in sieve, as with the pendulum
crusher, or as a separate operation.
 The simplest sieving device is a screen made from a wire mesh, nailed to a
supporting wooden frame and inclined at approximately 45º to the ground. The
material is thrown against the screen, fine material passes through and the
coarse, oversized material runs down the front. Alternatively, the screen can
be suspended horizontally from a tree or over a pit. The latter method is only
suitable in the case where most material can pass through easily otherwise
too much coarse material is collected, and the screen becomes blocked and
needs frequent emptying.

Proportioning
Before starting production, tests should be performed to establish the right proportion of soil, stabiliser
 water
and for the production of good quality blocks.
 The proportions of these materials and water should then be used throughout the production process.
To ensure uniformity in the compressed stabilised earth blocks produced, the weight or volume of each
material used in the block making process should be measured at the same physical state for subsequent
batches of blocks.
 The volume of soil or stabiliser should ideally be measured in dry or slightly damp conditions. After
establishing the exact proportion required of each material, it is advisable to build a measuring device
for each material.
 The dimensions of each measuring box should be such that their content, when full, is equivalent to the
proportion which should be mixed with other materials measured in other gauge boxes. Alternatively, a
simple gauge box may be used for all materials. In this case, the amount of material for the production of a
given batch of blocks may be measured by filling and emptying the gauge box a number of times for each
separate material. For example, a batch of blocks may require ten gauge boxes of soil for one gauge box of
stabiliser. Water may be measured in a small tank or container.It is advisable to mix enough materials to
allow the block- making machine to operate for approximately one hour. Thus, the volume of the mixed
material will depend on the hourly output of the block making equipment.
 Mixing
 In order to produce good quality blocks, it is very important that mixing be as thorough as possible. Dry
materials should be mixed first until they are a uniformcolour, then water is added and mixing continued until
a homogeneous mix is obtained. Mixing can be performed by hand on a hard surface, with spades, hoes,
or shovels.
 It is much better to add a little water at a time, sprinkled over the top of the mix from a watering can with a
rose spray on the nozzle. The wet mix should be turned over many times with a spade or other suitable tool.
A little more water may then be added, and the whole mixture turned over again. This process should be
repeated until all the water has been mixed in.
When lime is used as a stabiliser, it is advisable to allow the mix to stand for a short
while before moulding starts to allow better moistening of soil particles with water.
However, if cement is used for stabilisation, it is advisable to use the mix as soon as
possible because cement starts to hydrate immediately after it is wetted and delays will
result in the production of poor quality blocks. For this reason the quantity of cement-
sand mix should not exceed what is needed for one hour of operation. Even so, the
blocks produced at the end of one hour may be considerably weaker than those
produced immediately after the mixing. A concrete mixer, even if available, will not be
useful for mixing the wet soil, since the latter will tend to stick on the sides of the rotating
drum. If machinery is to be used for mixing, it should have paddles or blades that move
separately from the container. However, field experience shows that hand-mixing
methods are often more satisfactory, more efficient and cheaper than mechanical
mixing, and are less likely to produce small balls of soil that are troublesome at the block
moulding stage.
 Quantity of Materials Needed
Compressed stabilized earth building blocks are usually larger in size than traditional
burnt bricks. A typical block size is 290 x 140 x 90mm. Its production will need about 7.5
to 8.5kg of materials depending on the compaction pressure. The exact amount of
stabiliser necessary must be established for any particular project. The fraction of lime or
cement usually varies between 5% to 8% by weight. Similarly, the optimum water content
(OMC) for any particular soil must be determined experimentally. The moisture level
varies widely with the nature of the soil. An approximate estimate of about 15% by
weight is often assumed.
 Testing Soil Prior to Block
Production

 For block production, the soil mix must be checked for each batch of blocks so as to attain the
optimum moisture content (OMC).
 Two simple field tests can be carried out. These are explained below:
 Take a handful from the soil mix for block production and squeeze it in the hand, the mix should ball
together. When the hand is opened, the fingers should be reasonably dry and clean.
 Drop the ball sample onto a hard surface from a height of about one metre. If the sample:-
completely shatters, this shows that it is not sufficiently moist,- squashes into a flattened ball or disc
on impact with the hard surface, this implies too high a moisture content,- breaks into four or five
major lumps, this shows that the moisture contents or the soil mix is close to the optimum moisture
content (OMC).
 To manufacture blocks of uniform size and density, special precautions must be taken to fill the mould
with the same amount of mix for each compaction by using
a small wooden box as a measuring device.
 To facilitate development of the pressed blocks and to ensure good neat surfaces it is advisable to
moisten the internal faces of the machine mould with a mould releasing agent (reject oil) which can
be applied with either a rag, brush or spray
 Curing
 To achieve maximum strength, compressed stabilised earth blocks need a period
of damp curing, where they are kept moist. This is a common requirement for all
cementitious materials.
 What is important is that the moisture of the soil mix is retained within the body of
the block for a few days. If the block is left exposed to hot dry weather conditions,
the surface material will lose its moisture and the clay particles tend to shrink.
 This will cause surface cracks on the block faces. In practice, various methods are
used to ensure proper curing. Such methods include the use of plastic bags,
grass, leaves, etc. to prevent moisture from escaping.
 After two or three days, depending, on the local temperatures, cement
stabilised blocks complete their primary cure.
 As the stack of blocks is built up, the top layer should always be wetted
and covered, and the lower layer should be allowed to air-dry to achieve
maximum strength. Alternatively, freshly moulded blocks can be laid out in a
single layer, on a non-absorbent surface, and covered with a sheet to prevent
loss of moisture.
 The required duration of curing varies from soil to soil and, more significantly,
which type of stabiliser is used.
 With cement stabilisation, it is recommended to cure blocks for a minimum of
three weeks. The curing period for lime stabilisation should be at least four weeks.
Compressed stabilised earth blocks should be fully cured and dry before being
used for construction.
 Soil Testing Methods

 Laboratory analysis of the raw material is always necessary for large-scale production of compressed stabilized
earth blocks. For small-scale production, however, it is not essential to employ sophisticated tests to establish the
suitability of a soil. Simple field tests can be performed to get an indication of the composition of the soil sample.
Such tests are discussed briefly below
 Smell test
 Smell the soil immediately after it has been sampled. If it smells musty it contains organic matter. This smell will
become stronger if the soil is heated or wetted. Soil containing organic matter is not suitable for production of
compressed stabilized earth blocks.
 Nibble test
 Care should be taken to ensure that it is safe to place any samples in the mouth. Nibble a pinch of soil, crushing it
lightly between the teeth. If it grinds between the teeth with a disagreeable sensation, the soil is sandy. If it can be
ground between the teeth, without a disagreeable sensation the soil is silty. If it has a smooth or floury texture and
if when a small piece is applied to the tongue it sticks, the soil is clayey (Houben & Guillaud.
 Touch test
 Remove the largest grains and crumble the soil by rubbing the sample between the fingers and the palm of the
hand. If it feels rough and has no cohesion when moist the soil is sandy. If it feels slightly rough and is moderately
cohesive when moistened the soil is silty. If, when dry, it contains lumps or concretions which resist crushing, and if
it becomes plastic and sticky when moistened the soil is clayey .
 Sedimentation test
 The tests mentioned previously make it possible to form a general idea of the texture
of the soil and the relative particle sizes of the different fractions.
 To obtain a more precise idea of the nature of each soil fraction, a simplified
sedimentation test can be carried out in the field. The apparatus required is straight
forward: a transparent cylindrical glass bottle with a flat bottom and a capacity of at
least one litre, with a neck wide enough to get a hand in and a lid to allow for shaking.
 Fill the bottle to one-third with clean water. Add approximately the same volume of dry
soil passed through a 6mm sieve and add a teaspoonful of common salt.
 Firmly close the lid of the bottle and shake until the soil and water are well mixed.
Allow the bottle to stand on a flat surface for about half an hour. Shake the bottle
again for two minutes and stand on level surface for a further 45 minutes until the
water starts to clear. The finer particles fall more slowly and as result will be deposited
on top of the larger size particles. Two or three layers will emerge, with the lowest
layer containing fine gravel, the central layer containing the sand fraction and the top
layer containing silt and clay. The relative proportions, and hence percentages, of
each fraction can be determined by measuring the depth of each layer.
 Adhesion test
 Compact a ball of moist soil so that it does not stick to the fingers and insert a spatula or
knife. If the spatula penetrates it with difficulty, and soil sticks to it upon withdrawal the
soil is extremely clayey. If the spatula can be pushed into it without great difficulty but a
bit of soil remains on the knife upon withdrawal the soil is moderately clayey. If the
spatula can be pushed into the mass without encountering any resistance at all, even if
the spatula is dirty upon withdrawal the soil contains only a little clay
 Washing test
 Rub the hands with some slightly moistened soil. If the hands are easy to rinse clean
this implies that the soil is sandy. If the soil appears to be powdery and the hands can
be rinsed clean fairly easily the soil is silty . If the soil has a soapy feel and the hands
cannot be rinsed easily the soil is clayey.
 Linear shrinkage mould test
 The linear shrink test, or Alcock's test, is performed using a wooden box, 60cm long,
4cm wide and 4cm deep. Grease the inside surfaces of the box before filling it with
moist soil with an optimum moisture content (OMC). Ensure that the soil is pressed into
all corners of the box using a small wooden spatula that can also be used to smooth the
surface. Expose the filled box to the sun for a period of three days or in the shade for
seven days. After this period measure the length of the hardened and dried soil as
compared to the length of the box and calculate the shrinkage length of the soil
 Water Retention Test
 Form a ball of fine soil, 2 or 3cm in diameter,
 - Moisten the ball so that it sticks together but does not stick to the fingers,
 - Slightly flatten the ball and hold it in the palm of the extended hand,
 - Vigorously tap the ball with the other hand so that the water is brought to the
surface. The ball will appear smooth, shiny or greasy,
 - Press the ball flat between thumb and index finger,
 - Observe the number of taps required for a reaction as well as the consisteny of
the soil.
 Implications
 - If a rapid reaction is achieved (5-10 taps) and the flattened ball crumbles, the soil
is very fine or a coarse silt,
 - If a slow reaction is achieved (20-30 taps) and the flattened ball does not crumble
but flattens, the soil is slightly plastic silt or silty clay,
 - If a very slow reaction is achieved (over 30 taps) and the flattened ball does not
change appearance on pressing, the soil has a high clay content.
 ADVANTAGES OF CSEB

A local material
 Ideally, the production is made on the site itself or in thenearby area. Thus, it will
save the transportation, fuel, time and money.
A bio-degradable material
 Well-designed CSEB houses can withstand, with a minimum of maintenance, heavy
rains, snowfall or frost without being damaged. The strength and durability has been
proven since half a century. But let’s imagine a building fallen down and that a
jungle grows on it: the bio-chemicals contained in the humus of the topsoil will
destroy the soil cement mix in 10 or 20 years… And CSEB will come back to our
Mother Earth!
Limiting deforestation
 Firewood is not needed to produce CSEB. It will save the forests, which are being
depleted quickly in the world, due to short view developments and the
mismanagement of resources.
Management of resources
 Each quarry should be planned for various utilisations: water harvesting pond,
wastewater treatment, reservoirs, landscaping, etc. I
An adapted material;
 Being produced locally it is easily adapted to the various needs: technical, social,
cultural habits.
A transferable technology
 It is a simple technology requiring semi skills, easy to get. Simple villagers will be
able to learn how to do it in few weeks.
A job creation opportunity
 CSEB allow unskilled and unemployed people to learn a skill, get a job and rise in
the social values.
Market opportunity;
According to the local context (materials, labour, equipment, etc.) the final price will
vary,
but in most of the cases it will be cheaper than fired bricks.
Reducing imports
 Produced locally by semi skilled people, no need import from far away expensive
materials or transport over long distances heavy and costly building materials.
 DISADVANTAGES

 Proper soil identification is required or lack of soil.

 Unawareness of the need to manage resources.
 Ignorance of the basics for production & use.
 Wide spans, high & long building are difficult to do.
 Low technical performances compared to concrete.
 Untrained teams producing bad quality products.
 Over-stabilization through fear or ignorance, implying outrageous costs.
 Under-stabilization resulting in low quality products.
 Bad quality or un-adapted production equipment.
 Low social acceptance due to counter examples (By unskilled people, or bad soil
& equipment).
 CONCLUSION

 We can conclude that firstly, identification tests are important because they allow defining
characteristics of the earth, in order to situate them in relation to the suitability criteria, and
therefore orient about choice of the stabilizer.
 The behaviour of the blocks differs depending on the treatment and dosage incorporated.
The compressive strengths in dry and wet conditions increase with the dosage of binder.
Mixing cement + lime yielded the best resistance. Cement stabilized blocks are less
resistant to wet.
 The different formulations have determined the best treatment. It is the mixture of cement
+ lime which has proved the best suitable treatment, and this, from the point of view of
strength and of durability.
 Better compaction could generally improved behaviour blocks moisture because as
previously mentioned, the press used was manual and required a lot of effort to compact
the blocks at their maximum density.
 We finally conclude that by using available lands in the environment, which have not
necessarily ideal properties for the construction, there may be an appropriate treatment
that achieves fairly satisfactory results, provided it complies with the good rules of
implementation and take into account the cost of stabilizing products.