Organizational Behavior: Eighteenth Edition

Organizational Behavior
Eighteenth Edition
Chapter 6
Perception and Individual
Decision Making
Copyright © 2019, 2017, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Learning Objectives
6.1 Explain the factors that influence perception.
6.2 Describe attribution theory.
6.3 Explain the link between perception and decision making.
6.4 Contrast the rational model of decision making with
bounded rationality and intuition.
6.5 Explain how individual differences and organizational
constraints affect decision making.
6.6 Contrast the three ethical decision criteria.
6.7 Describe the three-stage model of creativity.
Explain the Factors That Influence
Perception (1 of 2)
• Perception is a process by which individuals organize
and interpret their sensory impressions to give meaning
to their environment.
• It is important to the study of OB because people’s
behaviors are based on their perception of what reality
is, not on reality itself.
Explain the Factors That Influence
Perception (2 of 2)
Exhibit 6-1 Factors That Influence Perception
Explain Attribution Theory (1 of 10)
• Attribution theory suggests that when we observe an
individual’s behavior, we attempt to determine whether it
was internally or externally caused.
• Determination depends on three factors:
– Distinctiveness
– Consensus
– Consistency
• Clarification of the differences between internal and
external causation
– Internally caused – those that are believed to be
under the personal control of the individual.
– Externally caused – resulting from outside causes.
Exhibit 6-2 Attribution Theory
• Fundamental attribution error
– We have a tendency to underestimate the influence
of external factors and overestimate the influence of
internal or personal factors.
• Self-serving bias
– Individuals attribute their own successes to internal
factors.
• Common Shortcuts in Judging Others
– Selective perception
 Any characteristic that makes a person, object, or
event stand out will increase the probability that it
will be perceived.
 Since we can’t observe everything going on around
us, we engage in selective perception.
• Halo effect
– The halo effect occurs when we draw a general
impression based on a single characteristic.
• Contrast effects
– We do not evaluate a person in isolation.
– Our reaction to one person is influenced by other
persons we have recently encountered.
• Stereotyping
– Judging someone based on one’s perception of the
group to which that person belongs.
 We have to monitor ourselves to make sure we’re
not unfairly applying a stereotype in our evaluations
and decisions.
• Applications of Shortcuts in Organizations
– Employment Interview
 Evidence indicates that interviewers make
perceptual judgments that are often inaccurate.
– Interviewers generally draw early impressions
that become very quickly entrenched.
– Studies indicate that most interviewers’ decisions
change very little after the first four or five
minutes of the interview.
• Performance Expectations
– Evidence demonstrates that people will attempt to
validate their perceptions of reality, even when those
perceptions are faulty.
 Self-fulfilling prophecy, or the Pygmalion effect,
characterizes the fact that people’s expectations
determine their behavior.
– Expectations become reality.
The process by which a person’s expectations about someone can

lead to that someone behaving in ways which confirm the
expectations
• Performance Evaluation
– An employee’s performance appraisal is very much
dependent upon the perceptual process.
 Many jobs are evaluated in subjective terms.
 Subjective measures are problematic because of
selective perception, contrast effects, halo effects,
and so on.
Explain the Link Between Perception
and Decision Making
• Individuals make decisions – choosing from two or more
alternatives.
• Decision making occurs as a reaction to a problem.
– There is a discrepancy between some current state of
affairs and some desired state, requiring consideration
of alternative courses of action.
 One person’s problem is another’s satisfactory state
of affairs.
Rational Model of Decision Making vs.
Bounded Rationality and Intuition (1 of 12)
Exhibit 6-3 Steps in the Rational Decision-Making Model
1. Define the problem.
2. Identify the decision criteria.
3. Allocate weights to the criteria.
4. Develop the alternatives.
5. Evaluate the alternatives.
6. Select the best alternative.
• Assumptions of the Rational Model
– The decision maker…
 Has complete information.
 Is able to identify all the relevant options in an
unbiased manner.
 Chooses the option with the highest utility.
• Most decisions in the real world don’t follow the rational
model.
• Bounded Rationality
– Most people respond to a complex problem by
reducing it to a level at which it can be readily
understood.
 People satisfice – they seek solutions that are
satisfactory and sufficient.
– Individuals operate within the confines of bounded
rationality.
 They construct simplified models that extract the
essential features.
• How does bounded rationality work?
– Once a problem is identified, the search for criteria
and options begins.
 A limited list of the more conspicuous choices is
identified.
 The decision maker then reviews the list, looking
for a solution that is “good enough.”
• Intuition
– Intuitive decision making occurs outside conscious
thought; it relies on holistic associations, or links
between disparate pieces of information, is fast, and
is affectively charged, meaning it usually engages the
emotions.
– The key is neither to abandon nor rely solely on
intuition, but to supplement it with evidence and good
judgment.
Exhibit 6-4 Reducing Biases and Errors
Focus on Goals. Without goals, you can’t be rational, you don’t know
what information you need, you don’t know which information is relevant
and which is irrelevant, you’ll find it difficult to choose between
alternatives, and you’re far more likely to experience regret over the
choices you make. Clear goals make decision making easier and help
you eliminate options that are inconsistent with your interests.
[Exhibit 6-4 Continued]
Look for Information That Disconfirms Your Beliefs. One of the most
effective means for counteracting overconfidence and the confirmation
and hindsight biases is to actively look for information that contradicts
your beliefs and assumptions. When we overtly consider various ways
we could be wrong, we challenge our tendencies to think we’re smarter
than we actually are.
Don’t Try to Create Meaning out of Random Events. The educated
mind has been trained to look for cause-and-effect relationships. When
something happens, we ask why. And when we can’t find reasons, we
often invent them. You have to accept that there are events in life that
are outside your control. Ask yourself if patterns can be meaningfully
explained or whether they are merely coincidence. Don’t attempt to
create meaning out of coincidence.
[Exhibit 6-4 Continued]
Increase Your Options. No matter how many options you’ve identified,
your final choice can be no better than the best of the option set you’ve
selected. This argues for increasing your decision alternatives and for
using creativity in developing a wide range of diverse choices. The more
alternatives you can generate, and the more diverse those alternatives,
the greater your chance of finding an outstanding one.
Source: Based on S. P. Robbins, Decide & Conquer: Making Winning Decisions and Taking Control of Your Life (Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Financial Times/Prentice Hall, 2004), 164–68.
• Common Biases and Errors in Decision Making
– Overconfidence Bias: individuals whose intellectual
and interpersonal abilities are weakest are most likely
to overestimate their performance and ability.
– Anchoring Bias: fixating on initial information as a
starting point and failing to adequately adjust for
subsequent information.
• Confirmation Bias: type of selective perception.
– Seek out information that reaffirms past choices, and
discount information that contradicts past judgments.
• Availability Bias: tendency for people to base judgments
on information that is readily available.
• Escalation of Commitment: staying with a decision
even when there is clear evidence that it’s wrong.
– Likely to occur when individuals view themselves as
responsible for the outcome.
• Randomness Error: our tendency to believe we can
predict the outcome of random events.
– Decision making becomes impaired when we try to
create meaning out of random events.
• Risk Aversion: the tendency to prefer a sure thing instead
of a risky outcome.
– Ambitious people with power that can be taken away
appear to be especially risk averse.
– People will more likely engage in risk-seeking
behavior for negative outcomes, and risk-averse
behavior for positive outcomes, when under stress.
• Hindsight Bias: the tendency to believe falsely that one
has accurately predicted the outcome of an event, after
that outcome is actually known.
Contrast the Three Ethical Decision
Criteria (1 of 3)
• Utilitarianism: decisions are made solely on the basis
of their outcomes or consequences.
• Focus on rights: calls on individuals to make decisions
consistent with fundamental liberties and privileges as
set forth in documents such as the Bill of Rights.
– Protects whistle-blowers.
• Impose and enforce rules fairly and impartially to ensure
justice or an equitable distribution of benefits and costs.
Criteria (2 of 3)
• Behavioral ethics: an area of study that analyzes how
people behave when confronted with ethical dilemmas.
– Individuals do not always follow ethical standards
promulgated by their organizations, and we sometimes
violate our own standards.
– There are ways to increase ethical decision making in
organizations.
– Consider cultural differences.
Criteria (3 of 3)
• Lying
– One of the top unethical activities we may indulge in
daily.
– It undermines all efforts toward sound decision making.
• Managers—and organizations—simply cannot make good
decisions when facts are misrepresented and people give
false motives for their behaviors.
• Lying is a big ethical problem as well.
Describe the Three-Stage Model
of Creativity (1 of 2)
• Creativity is the ability to produce novel and useful ideas.
– These are ideas that are different from what has been
done before, but that are also appropriate to the problem.
Describe the Three-Stage Model
of Creativity (2 of 2)
Exhibit 6-5 Three-Stage Model of Creativity in Organizations
Implications for Managers (1 of 3)
• Behavior follows perception, so to influence behavior at
work, assess how people perceive their work. Often
behaviors we find puzzling can be explained by
understanding the initiating perceptions.
• Make better decisions by recognizing perceptual biases
and decision-making errors we tend to commit. Learning
about these problems doesn’t always prevent us from
making mistakes, but it does help.
• Adjust your decision-making approach to the national
culture you’re operating in and to the criteria your
organization values. If you’re in a country that doesn’t
value rationality, don’t feel compelled to follow the rational
decision-making model or to try to make your decisions
appear rational. Adjust your decision approach to ensure
compatibility with the organizational culture.
• Combine rational analysis with intuition. These are not
conflicting approaches to decision making. By using
both, you can improve your decision making
effectiveness.
• Try to enhance your creativity. Actively look for novel
solutions to problems, attempt to see problems in new
ways, use analogies, and hire creative talent. Try to
remove work and organizational barriers that might
impede your creativity.
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The process by which a person’s expectations about someone can

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