METHODS OF

PHILOSOPHIZING
Introduction to
Philosophizing is to
think or express
oneself in a rational
and logical manner.
Introduction to
A. Phenomenology: On
Consciousness
B. Existentialism: On Freedom
C. Postmodernism: On Culture
D. Analytic Tradition
E. Logic and Critical Thinking:
Tools in Reasoning Introduction to
PHENOMENOLOGY
On
Consciousness
Introduction to
Phenomenology is
essentially a philosophical
method which focuses on a
careful inspection and
description of phenomena
Introduction to
Phenomena is defined as
any object of conscious
experience, that is, that
which we are conscious
of. Introduction to
Conscious experience
have a unique feature: we
experience them, we live
through them, or perform
them. Introduction to
Basically, it
refers to our
Introduction to
Typical experience one
might have in everyday life:
 I hear my teacher talking
in front of the class as I
was searching which part
of the book was she in. to
Introduction
Typical experience one
might have in everyday life:
 I am thinking that
walking is different from
running.
Introduction to
Typical experience one
might have in everyday life:
 I imagine a fearsome
creature like that in my
nightmare
Introduction to
Typical experience one
might have in everyday life:
 I intend to finish my
assignment till noon.

Introduction to
Typical experience one
might have in everyday life:
 I walk carefully around
the broken glass on the
sidewalk.
Introduction to
Typical experience one
might have in everyday life:
 I am searching for the
words to make my point
in a conversation.
Introduction to
The human mind is
conscious of its
environment , intentional
and directed at a material
object or idea. Introduction to
A phenomenologist
distinguishes thought
processes as it perceives
objects of reality.
Introduction to
The phenomenological
standpoint is achieved
through a series of
“reductions” that
eliminate certain aspects
Introduction to
1. Epoche or “suspension”
(abstaining from belief)
Example: consider my
visual experience wherein I
see a tree across the square.
Introduction to
2. Eliminates the merely
empirical contents of
consciousness and focus
instead on the essential
features, the meanings of
Introduction to
Example
“Based on the shape of the
leaves and the hieght of the
tree, it must be a coconut
tree.” Introduction to
Watch philo-notes:
https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=ePQIa
gmcCXc
Existentialism
On Freedom
Introduction to
Existentialism is a kind of
philosophy that highlights
human existence, human
freedom, and choice.
Introduction to
It argues that one must
define his/her meaning in
life and make rational
decisions.
Introduction to
Existentialists believe that a
person is free and should
take full responsibility of
his/her own doings.
Introduction to
Fundamental principles are:
 Action
 Choice
 Decision
Introduction to
Common themes of
Existentialism:
 The human condition or
the relation of the
 individual to the world
The human response to
that condition Introduction to
Common themes of
Existentialism:
 Being, especially the
difference between the
being of person and the
 being of other kinds of
Human freedom Introduction to
Common themes of
Existentialism:
 The significance and
unavoidability of choice
and decision in the
absence of certainty
Introduction to
Common themes of
Existentialism:
 The concreteness and
subjectivity of life as
lived, against
abstractions and false
Introduction to
Soren Kierkegaard
 started the Christian
existentialism in the 19 th

century
 The first existentialist
Introduction to
Kierkegaard insisted that
there are two kinds of self:
 Authentic self – the
personally chosen self
Introduction to
Kierkegaard insisted that there are
two kinds of self:
 Public or “herd” self – the
identity which is the tendency
of people to blindly follow the
crowd because it is familiar,
easy, and less stressful.
Introduction to
Jean-Paul Sartre
 Explores the true
meaning of freedom and
in what way a person can
achieve such. Introduction to
Jean-Paul Sartre
 Claims that a person is not
an object but is a subject.
 It is only through intentional
choices that a person could
live a highly defined life.
Introduction to
Jean-Paul Sartre
 It is always free to
choose (though not free
not to choose)
 Free to negate (or reject)
the given features of the
Introduction to
Jean-Paul Sartre
 One is never free of one’s
“situation”, but one is
always free to “negate”
that situation and to (try
to) change it. Introduction to
This implies that a person
might not be able to change
his circumstances but he
can change his attitude
toward that situation.
Introduction to
Example
Situation: experiencing
poverty
Attitude: working hard to
overcome the situation
Introduction to
“Authentic
“good faith”
ity” Introduction to
Socrates promoted the self-
examination of one’s beliefs
and values in order to
escape from bias and
stereotypes. He famously
said that the unexamined
Introduction to
Augustine was concerned
with the spiritual nature of
the “true” self as opposed to
the inauthentic demands of
desire and the body.Introduction to
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
was adamant about the
essential goodness of the
“natural” self in contrast
to the “corruption”Introduction to
Sartre noted, however,
that although everyone
has freedom of choice,
one is still responsible for
what he/she is andIntroduction
what to
If a person chooses to deviate
from social norms and break
the law, given that he/she
also has a responsibility from
the people around him/her,
he/she must face the
Introduction to
postmodernism
On Cultures

Introduction to
Postmodernism is not a
philosophy. It is at best a
holding pattern, perhaps a
cry of despair.
It rightly talks about world
philosophy, the philosophy
Introduction to
The postmodern view of
culture challenges the
notion that there is a
single definition of
culture. Introduction to
Postmodernist hold the
following views:
1. There is no objective
reality
2. There is no scientific
or historical truth
Introduction to
Postmodernist hold the
following views:
3. Science and technology
(and even reason and logic)
are not vehicles of human
progress but suspect
Introduction to
Postmodernist hold the
following views:
4. Reason and logic are
not universally valid;

Introduction to
Postmodernist hold the
following views:
5. There is no such thing as
human nature (human
behavior and psychology
are socially determined or
Introduction to
Postmodernist hold the
following views:
6. Language does not refer
to a reality outside itself;
7. There is no certain
knowledge; Introduction to
Postmodernist hold the
following views:
8. No general theory of
the natural or social
world can be validIntroduction
or to
 Analytic
tradition

Introduction to
Analytic philosophy is
the conviction that to
some significant degree,
philosophical problems,
puzzles, and errorsIntroduction
are to
Language cannot
objectively describe truth.
For Ludwig Wittgenstein,
language is socially
conditioned which means
the meaning of words is
Introduction to
TRUTH, as we perceive it,
is itself socially
constructed, and it can
change depending on what
people have decided it to
be. Introduction to
Alfred Tarski
 He was interested in the
logical relationship
wherein the truth of a
sentence is emphasized .
Introduction to
Alfred Tarski
 He defended that truth is
tangible and shows
properties and is based
on physical facts.
Introduction to
Alfred Tarski
 Material adequacy is an
extension of the term
“true”.
 The deficiencies of
language Introduction to
Example
Traditional philosophical
problem:
“Does God exist?”
Approach in Analytic
Philosophy: Introduction to
Example
Question: “Gawin mo kung
ano ang tama at nararapat para
sa iyo.”
Analytic Approach: Ano ang
kahulugan at basehan Introduction
ng tamato
Example
Question: “Ganito ang tama
(blah blah blah) at ganito ang
mali (blah blah blah).”

Analytic Approach: PAANO

Introduction to
Logic and
critical
thinking
Introduction to
Critical thinking is
distinguishing facts
(objectives) and
opinions or personal
feelings (subjective).
Introduction to
In making rational
choices, first, we suspend
beliefs and judgements
until all facts have been
gathered and considered.
Introduction to
Critical thinking also takes
into consideration the
cultural systems, values and
beliefs, for they could
influence the interpretation
of the meaning of facts
Introduction to
Critical thinking helps us
uncover bias and
prejudice and open to new
ideas not necessarily in
agreement with previous
Introduction to
Warnings, an advice, belief, or
opinion lacks a claim that
anything is being proved. If an
opinion or belief has no
evidence or reason that
supports some conclusion,
Introduction to
Example:
“A dark tan may seem
attractive though recent studies
have shown that too much sun
exposure may lead to
premise to present the
Statement skin
that claim

cancer.” evidence or reason.

Introduction to
Example 1.1:
“There are more Chinese
business owners than Filipino
businessmen around Paranaque
that it could possibly be a
second China Town other than
Introduction to
Example 1.2:
“According to statistics, there
are more Chinese business
owners than Filipino
businessmen around Paranaque
that it could possibly be a second
Introduction to
Example: Wants to
convey or
“Human cloning is evil.”
prove
something.
Conclusion: Human
cloning should never be
allowed. Introduction to
Example:
“Some words can be very
offensive.”
Conclusion: People
should choose their words
Introduction to
Two types of reasoning:
1. Inductive – specific to
general

2. Deductive – general to
Introduction to
1. Inductive – based on
observation (specifics) in order
to make generalizations.
Example
“Many people are holding their
umbrellas, the ground is wet, and the
wind is strong so probably it is to
Introduction
Inductive reason is
often applied in
prediction,
forecasting, or Introduction to
Example
“Aside from being the noisiest
class, they are also not interested
in the discussion and their test
scores are very low. This class is
the worst class that I ever had.”
Introduction to
2. Deductive – draws conclusion
from usually one broad
judgement or definition and one
A linguistic act –
more specific
The state of assertion.
either spoken or
being either written – that has a
true, or false, truth value.
Introduction to
or
Example

All philosophers are wise.

(major premise)
Confucius is a philosopher.
(minor premise) Introduction to
Example
Major premise: “Palagi nalang
akong iniiwan! Pare-pareho lang
talaga kayong mga lalaki.”
Minor premise: Ang tatay mo ay
lalaki. Introduction to
Validity and Soundness of an
Argument
 If the two premises are
constructed logically
 Then the conclusion must
follow logically Introduction to
Strength of an Argument
 Example of inductive
reasoning are surveys
 Multistage random
sampling
 Probability proportional to
Introduction to
Example (Research survey)
Respondent:
 Rosario Institute
 Senior High School students
 All Grade 12 students only
 5 to 10 G12 students per class
Introduction to
Surveys try to get many
specific examples to arrive at a
general and educated guess.
Result:
“Probability of buying your
product based on percentage
Introduction to
fallacies
Introduction to
Fallacy is a defect in
an argument other than
its having false
premises.
Introduction to
 Gambler’s Fallacy Decision Point
Tu Quoque Appeal to Slippery
Fallacy slope Fallacy
Stra Appeal
nature to tradition Faulty Analogy
Genetic False Dichotomy Burden of Proof
wma
Fallacy
Middle Ground The Fallacy
n
Fallacy
Loaded question Moving the Goalpost
Fallacy
Denying the Affirming the consequent
Fallacious appeal
antecedent to Authority Red Herring
Introduction to
Appeal to pity (Argumentum ad
misericordiam)
A specific kind of appeal to
emotion in which someone tries to
win support for an argument or
idea by exploiting his or her
Introduction to
opponent’s feelings of pity or guilt
Example
 I cannot help you with the
project. You have to
consider, my boyfriend just
broke up with me. I am
deeply broken hearted right
Introduction to
Example
 Ma’am tanggapin nyo na po ang
project ko. Kaya lang naman po
ako na-late sa pagpasa dahil
may personal problem po ako.
Hindi nyo naman siguro
gustong bumagsak ako dahil to
Introduction
Appeal to ignorance
(Argumentum ad
ignorantiam)
Whatever has not been
proven false must be true,
Introduction to
Example
 You can’t prove that ghosts
don’t exist. Therefore, they
must exist.
 Well, you can’t prove that
ghost do exist. Therefore,
Introduction to
Example
 Wag ka nalang uminom ng
gamot. Mag-water therapy
ka nalang. Bakit si Maria
inom lang ng inom ng tubig
hindi naman nagkakasakit?
Introduction to
Equivocation
Using the same term in an
argument in different places
but the word has different
meanings.
Introduction to
Example
 Her grandmother loves to eat
apples but she is the apple of
the eye of her grandmother.
I’m sure her grandmother
will have a hard time eating
Introduction to
Example
 Napapaganda ng make up
ang itsura ng isang tao, try
mo kaya gamitan ng make
up ang ugali mo, baka
sakaling gumanda. Introduction to
Composition
This infers that something is
true of the whole from the
fact that it is true of some
parts of the whole.
Introduction to
Example
 Hydrogen (H) is air.
Oxygen (O) is air.
therefore, 2H O is air.

Introduction to
Example
 Lalakas talaga ang Golden
State Warriors kase may
tatlo silang malalakas na
players.
Introduction to
Division
The reverse of composition.
If it’s true of the whole then
it’s true of the parts.
Introduction to
Example
 Her entire family is a
family of beauty queens.
I’m sure she will be a
beauty queen too.
Introduction to
Example
 Kaya bungangera yan eh,
kase buong pamilya nyan
mga bungangera din.

Introduction to
Against the person
(Argumentum ad hominem)
Attacking the individual
person instead of the
argument.
Introduction to
Example
 You are irritatingly
ugly, that is why you
cannot be promoted.
Introduction to
Example: using someone’s
education level as a means to
exploit and degrade the
opposer’s argument
 “You didn’t even finish high
school. How could Introduction
you to
Example: demeaning a
teacher’s decision on grading
by using her intelligence
 “Well, it’s not like you
graduated from a good
school, so I can see why you
Introduction to
Example: using gender as a
means to devalue an
argument from an opposing
gender
 “This is a female issue. As
a man, how can you haveto
Introduction
Example: stating that one’s
age precludes him from
being able to make an
intelligent or meaningful
argument
 “You’re clearly just too to
Introduction
Example: stating that
someone’s argument is
incorrect because of her
religious beliefs
 “Perhaps if you weren’t
Mormon, you would seeto
Introduction
Example
 Bakit ako maniniwala
sayo? Eh isa ka lang
namang hamak na
katulong at palamunin
Introduction to
Appeal to force
(Argumentum ad baculum)
Telling the hearer that
something bad will happen
to him/her if he/she does not
Introduction to
Example
 You have to pass this
text message to 10
people or else you will
receive bad luck.Introduction to
Example
 You should choose to
work more overtime at the
same rate of pay. After all,
you wouldn’t want to
loose your job, would
Introduction to
Threats are not
arguments. Do not
allow others to force
you into accepting
something which is to
Introduction
Appeal to the
people/popularity
(Argumentum ad populum /
Bandwagon)
Using the hearer to accept a
Introduction to
Example
 Everybody wants
him/her to be president;
we should support
him/her too. Introduction to
Example
 Everyone says it’s okay
to lie as long as you
don’t get caught.
Introduction to
Example
 Wag tayong magpapa-
picture dyan. Lahat daw
ng mag-jowang
nagpapapicture dyan
Introduction to
False cause (post hoc)
Since that event followed
this one, that event must
have been caused by this
one. Also called coincidental
Introduction to
Example
 I have been eating pandesal
ever since. This morning I
ate Spanish bread instead
and an earthquake happened.
I went back to eating
Introduction to
Example
 Isa sa mga paniniwala ng mga
tao na hindi pwedeng
magpagupit ng buhok bago
kumuha ng isang pagsusulit.
Kaya siguro hindi sya nakapasa
dahil bago ang exam, Introduction to
Hasty generalization
(anecdotes)
this is where you draw a
general conclusion from a
small or biased sample.
Introduction to
Example
 My aunt smokes 10
cigarettes a day and she
lived a hundred and nine.
That means cigarette must
not be bad for you.
Introduction to
Example
 Hindi na ako mag-aaral.
Yung kaibigan nga ng
tatay ko wala namang
tinapos pero naging
milyonaryo. Introduction to
Begging the Question
(petition principii)
A claim is made and
accepted to be true, but one
must accept the premise to
be true for the claim to be
Introduction to
Example
 The rights of the criminal
are just as important as the
rights of the victim.
Everyone’s rights are
equal. Introduction to
Example
A: Napakasakit mo naman
magsalita. Parang nagtatanong
lang.
B: Bakit ba? Puyat ako ngayon
kaya madali akong mairita.
Introduction to
 Determining
Truth from
opinion
Applying Logic and Analyzing
FallaciesIntroduction to
1. Differentiate fallacy of composition
and division and how it is related to
INDUCTIVE and DEDUCTIVE
reasoning. Give an example.

2. Explain existentialism and post

modernism.
Introduction to