Chapter 3

Analog Signal Transmission and

Reception
 CONTENTS
• Introduction to Modulations
• Amplitude Modulation
• Angle Modulation
• Radio and Television Broadcasting
• Mobile Radio Systems
 3.1 INTRODUCTION TO
MODULATION
• Denote m(t) as the analog signal to be transmitted.
• The signal m(t) is assumed to be a lowpass signal of
bandwidth W and is a power-type signal with
1 T /2


2
Pm  lim m(t ) dt
T  T T / 2

• The message signal m(t) is transmitted through the

communication channel by putting it on a carrier signal of
the form
c(t )  Ac cos(2f ct  c )

carrier amplitude carrier frequency carrier phase

• The signal m(t) modulates the carrier signal c(t) in three
forms
– Amplitude Modulation (AM)
– Frequency Modulation (FM)
– Phase Modulation (PM)
• Objectives of modulation
– Translate the low pass signal m(t) to bandpass signal to match the
passband characteristics of the channel.
– Accommodate for simultaneous transmission - frequency-division
multiplexing (FDM).
– Increase the noise immunity in transmission by expanding the
bandwidth of the transmitted signal.
 3.2 AMPLITUDE
MODULATION (AM)
• The message signal m(t) is impressed on the amplitude of
the carrier signal c(t).
• Types of amplitude modulation
– Double-sideband, suppressed carrier AM (DSB-SC AM)
– Conventional double-sideband AM
– Single-sideband AM (SSB AM)
– Vestigial-sideband AM (VSB AM)
 3.2.1 Double-Sideband Suppressed Carrier AM
• A double-sideband, suppressed carrier (DSB-SC) AM
signal is obtained by multiplying the message signal m(t)
with the carrier signal c(t).
• Amplitude modulated signal
u (t )  m(t )c (t )
 Ac m(t ) cos(2f ct  c )
• The spectrum of the modulated signal can be obtained by
taking the Fourier transform of u(t).
U ( f )  F  m(t )  F  Ac cos(2f c t  c )

 M( f )
2

Ac jc
e  ( f  f c )  e  jc  ( f  f c ) 

Ac
2

M ( f  f c )e jc  M ( f  f c )e  jc 
upper sideband
upper sideband
lower sideband
• The magnitude of the spectrum of the message signal m(t)
has been translated or shifted in frequency by an amount f c
• The phase of the message signal has been translated in
frequency and offset by the carrier phase c
• The bandwidth of the AM signal is 2W, where W is the
bandwidth of m(t).
• The upper (lower) sideband of U(f) contains all the
frequency content of the message signal M(f).
• u(t) does not contain carrier components - u(t) is called a
suppressed-carrier signal (DSB-SC AM signal)
• To compute power content of DSB-SC signal, we first
evaluate the time-average autocorrelation function of the
signal u(t) 1 T / 2
T
Ru ( )  lim u(t )u(t   )dt
T  T / 2

1 T /2 2
 lim
T  T T / 2 Ac m(t )m(t   ) cos( 2f c t ) cos(2f c (t   ))dt

A2c 1 T /2
 lim  m(t )m(t   ) cos( 4f c t  2f c )  cos( 2f c ) dt
2 T   T  T / 2

• We may show that the following equation equals to zero.




m(t )m(t   ) cos(4f ct  2f c )dt
 *
  F [m(t   )] F  m(t ) cos(4f c t  2f c ) df Parseval’s relation


 j 2f c j 2f c *
  M ( f  2 f c )e M ( f  2 f c )e 

 j 2f
 e M ( f )   df  0

 2 2 
No frequency overlap
• Finally, we have
A2c
Ru ( )  Rm ( ) cos(2f c )
2
• Taking Fourier transform of both sides
 Ac2  Ac2
Su ( f )  F  Rm ( ) cos(2f c )   Sm ( f  f c )  Sm ( f  f c )
2  4
• The power spectral density of the DSB-SC signal is the
power spectral density of the message shifted upward and
2
downward by c and scaled by c / 4
f A
• The power of the modulated signal
Ac2 Ac2
P u  Ru (0)  Rm (0)  Pm
2 2
where Pm  Rm (0) is the power of the message signal
 Demodulation of DSB-SC AM Signal
• In the absence of noise, and with the assumption of an
ideal channel, the received signal can be expressed as
r (t )  u(t )  Ac m(t ) cos(2f c t  c )
• Demodulation of DSB-SC AM signal
– Multiply r(t) by a locally generated sinusoid cos( 2f ct   )
– Pass the product signal through an ideal lowpass filter having a
bandwidth W.
• Multiplication
r (t ) cos(2f c t   )  Ac m(t ) cos(2f c t  c ) cos(2f c t   )
1 1
 Ac m(t ) cos(c   )  Ac m(t ) cos(4f ct    c )
2         2          
low frequency component high frequency component
 Demodulator of DSB-SC AM signal

r (t )  Ac m(t ) cos(2f ct  c )
Lowpass filter
1
Ac m(t ) cos(c   )
2

cos( 2f ct   )
• The lowpass filter rejects the high frequency components
and pass only the low frequency component. Hence, the
output of the filter is
1
yl ( t )  Ac m(t ) cos(c   )
2
• Note that m(t) is multiplied by cos(c   ) . Thus the desired
signal is scaled by a factor that depends on the phase
difference between the phase c of the carrier and the
phase  of the locally generated sinusoid.
• If c    45 the amplitude of the desired signal is


reduced by 2
• If c    90 the desired signal component vanishes.


• For perfect demodulation, c   (Phase coherent)

Pilot Tone for Carrier Recovery in DSB
AM
• Add a pilot tone to a DSB AM signal- additional power
requirement

• Carrier recovery by a narrow band filter

 3.2.2 Conventional Amplitude Modulation
• A conventional AM signal consists of a large carrier
component in addition to the double sideband AM
modulated signal. The transmitted signal can be expressed
as
u(t )  Ac [1  m(t )] cos(2f ct  c ) with condition m(t )  1

Ac m(t ) cos(2f c t  c ) : DSB AM signal

Ac cos(2f c t  c ) : carrier component
• Advantage: easy to demodulate
• It is convenient to express m(t) as
m(t )  amn (t )
where mn (t ) is normalized such that
max mn (t )  1
t
The above equation can be done by using
m(t )
mn (t ) 
max m(t )
t

• The scale factor a is called the modulation index. The

modulated signal can be expressed as
u (t )  Ac [1  amn (t )] cos(2f c t )
Overmodulated (a > 1)
• The spectrum of the amplitude modulated signal u(t) is
U ( f )  F [amn (t )]  F [ Ac cos(2f c t  c )]  F [ Ac cos(2f c t  c )]

 aM n ( f ) 
2

Ac jc
e  ( f  f c )  e  jc  ( f  f c ) 

Ac jc
2
 
e  ( f  f c )  e  jc  ( f  f c )

A

 c e jc aM n ( f  f c )  e jc  ( f  f c )
2

 e  jc aM n ( f  f c )  e  jc  ( f  f c )

• The spectrum of a conventional AM signal occupies

bandwidth twice the bandwidth of the message signal.
• Example: Suppose that the modulating signal mn (t ) is a
sinusoid of the form
mn (t )  cos(2f mt ) f m  f c
Determine the DSB AM signal, its upper and lower
sidebands, and its spectrum, assuming a modulation index
of a.
Solution: The conventional AM signal
u(t )  Ac [1  a cos(2f mt )] cos(2f ct  c )
Ac a
 Ac cos(2f c t  c )  cos(2 ( f c  f m )t  c )
 2         
lower sideband component

Ac a
 cos(2 ( f c  f m )t  c )
 2         
upper sideband component
• The spectrum of the DSB AM signal
U( f ) 
2

Ac jc

e  ( f  f c )  e  jc  ( f  f c )


Ac a jc
4

e  ( f  f c  f m )  e  jc  ( f  f c  f m ) 

Ac a jc
4

e  ( f  f c  f m )  e  jc  ( f  f c  f m ) 
• We have already proved in the DSB-SC case, the power in
the modulated signal is
Ac2
Pu  Pm
2
Pm : power in the message signal
• For the conventional AM
1 T /2
Pm  lim 
T   T T / 2
(1  amn (t )) 2 dt
mn (t ) contains no DC component 1 T /2
 lim 
T   T T / 2
(1  a 2mn2 (t ))dt

 1  a 2 Pmn
• Finally, we have
Ac2 Ac2 2
Pu   a Pmn
2 2
Carrier power Message power
• Advantage of conventional AM signal: easy to be
demodulated
– Envelope detector
• Output of the envelope detector
 3.2.3 Single-Sideband AM
• DSB-SC AM signal requires a channel bandwidth
of Bc  2W Hz
• The transmission of either sideband is sufficient to
reconstruct the message signal m(t) at the receiver.
• We may reduce the transmitted bandwidth to W Hz by
transmitting only the upper sideband or the lower
sideband.
• A single sideband AM signal can be represented
u(t ) asAc m(t ) cos(2f ct )  Ac mˆ (t ) sin(2f ct )
mathematically
mˆ (t )
:Hilbert transform of m(t).
• Generation of a single-sideband AM signal by Hilbert
transform
• Generation of a single-sideband AM signal by bandpass
filter
• Let m(t) be a signal with Fourier transform M(f).
• An upper sideband AM signal is obtained by eliminating
the lower sideband of a DSB AM signal.
• We may pass the DSB AM signal through a highpass filter
whose transfer function is given by
1 f  fc
H( f )  
0 otherwise
• Obviously H(f) can be written as
H ( f )  u1 ( f  f c )  u1 (  f  f c )
 DSB SC AM signal F [2 Ac m(t ) cos(2 f ct )]

 fc fc
H(f)

 fc fc
USSB AM signal

 fc fc
 • The spectrum of the USSB AM signal is given by
U u ( f )  Ac M ( f  f c )u1 ( f  f c )  Ac M ( f  f c )u1 (  f  f c )
• Taking the inverse Fourier transform of both sides, we
obtain
uu (t )  Ac (m(t )  F 1[u 1 ( f )])e j 2f ct  Ac (m(t )  F 1[u1 ( f )])e  j 2f ct
1 j 1 j
F [u1 ( f )]   (t ) 
1
and F [u 1 ( f )]   (t ) 
1

2 2t 2 2t
1 j  j 2f ct 1 j   j 2f ct
uu (t )  Ac m(t )    (t )   e  Ac m(t )    (t )   e
2 2t  2 2t 
Ac j 2f c t Ac
 [m(t )  jmˆ (t )]e  [m(t )  jmˆ (t )]e  j 2f c t
2 2
 Ac m(t ) cos(2f c t )  Ac mˆ (t ) sin(2f c t )
F [ Ac m(t ) cos(2 f c t )]

F [ Ac mˆ (t ) sin(2 f c t )]
• For lower single sideband (LSSB) AM signal, notice
uu (t )  ul (t )  uDSB (t )
• We have
ul (t )  uDSB (t )  uu (t )
 2 Ac m(t ) cos( 2f ct )   Ac m(t ) cos( 2f c t )  Ac mˆ (t ) sin(2f c t )
 Ac m(t ) cos(2f c t )  Ac mˆ (t ) sin(2f c t )
• Finally, we have proved
USSB AM
uSSB (t )  Ac m(t ) cos(2f ct )  Ac mˆ (t ) sin(2f ct )

LSSB AM
• To recover the message signal from SSB AM signal, we
require a phase coherent or synchronous demodulator.
• First multiply the received signal with the local generated
carrier cos(2f ct   ) , we have
r (t ) cos(2f ct   )  u(t ) cos(2f c t   )
1 1
 Ac m(t ) cos   Ac mˆ (t ) sin   double frequency terms
2 2
• By passing the above signal through an ideal lowpass
filter, we have the output
1 1
yl ( t )  Ac m(t ) cos   Ac mˆ (t ) sin 
2 2

desired signal interference

• For perfect demodulation, we must have   0 .
 3.2.4 Vestigial-Sideband AM
• Relaxing the SSB AM by allowing a part called vestige to
appear at the output of the modulator. The resulting signal
is called vestigial-sideband (VSB) AM.
• Generation of VSB AM
– generate a DSB-SC AM signal
– pass the DSB-SC AM signal through a sideband filter with
frequency response H(f)
• In the time-domain the VSB signal may be expressed as
u(t )   Ac m(t ) cos(2f ct )  h(t )
h(t ) : impulse response of the VSB filter
• In frequency domain
Ac
U( f )   M ( f  f c )  M ( f  f c ) H ( f )
2
• Consider the demodulation of the VSB signal
• We have the product signal
v (t )  u(t ) cos(2f ct )
1
V( f )  U ( f  f c )  U ( f  f c )
2
A
 c  M ( f  2 f c )  M ( f ) H ( f  f c )
4
A
 c  M ( f  2 f c )  M ( f ) H ( f  f c )
4
• The lowpass filter rejects the double-frequency terms and
pass only the components in the frequency range f  W
• The signal spectrum at the output of the lowpass filter is
Ac
Vl ( f )  M ( f ) H ( f  f c )  H ( f  f c )
4
• Undistirtion requirement
H ( f  f c )  H ( f  f c )  constant f W
 3.2.5 Implementation of AM Modulator and
Demodulator
• Power-Law Modulation
– Nonliear device
– voltage-current characteristic of P-N diode
– input is the sum of the message signal and the carrier

• Let vi (t ) be the input signal. The output of the nonlinear

device can be expressed as
vo (t )  
n 1
an vin (t )
• Power-Law AM modulator

• Suppose that the nonlinear device is approximated by a

second order polynomial.
2
vo (t )  
n 1
an vin (t )
• Input to the nonlinear device
vi (t )  m(t )  Ac cos(2f c t )
• Output of the nonlinear device
vo (t ) a1  m(t )  Ac cos(2f ct )  a2  m(t )  Ac cos(2f ct )
2

 2a 
 a1m(t )  a2m 2 (t )  a2 Ac2 cos2 ( 2f ct )  Ac a1 1  2 m(t ) cos(2f ct )
 a1 
• The band pass filter with bandwidth 2W centered at f  f c
yields
 2a2 
u (t )  Ac a1 1  m(t ) cos(2f ct )
 a1 

where by design 2a2 m(t ) / a1  1

• Switching Modulator
• Assume that Ac  m(t )
• Let c(t )  Ac cos(2f ct )
• The diode will turn on if c(t )  0 and will turn off if c(t )  0
• The output across the load resistor is
vi (t ) c(t )  0
v0 (t )  
 0 c(t )  0
 vi (t ) s(t )
 [m(t )  Ac cos(2f ct )]s (t )

• Since s(t) is a periodic rectangular function, the Fourier

series is

1 2 ( 1) n 1
s(t )  
2  n 1 2n  1
cos 2f ct ( 2n  1)
• Hence
v0 (t )  [m(t )  Ac cos( 2f c t )]s(t )
A  4 
 c
2 1  A m(t ) cos( 2f ct )  other term s
 c 
• Passing v0 (t ) through a bandpass filter, we have
Ac  4 
u(t ) 
2
1 
 A m ( t )  cos(2f ct )
 c 
• Balanced Modulator for DSB-SC AM signal
• Ring modulator for DSB-SC AM
1

2
vo (t )
3

4
C(t)

• If c(t) > 0, 1, 4 on, and 2, 3 off, vo (t )  m(t )

• If c(t) < 0, 1,4 off, and 2,3 on, vo (t )  m(t )
• Therefore, we have
vo (t )  m(t )c(t )
• Since c(t) is a periodic function, the Fourier series can be
expressed as  n 1
4 ( 1)
c(t ) 
 
n 1 2n  1
cos 2f c ( 2n  1)t 

• The desired DSB-SC AM signal is obtained by passing v0 (t )

through a bandpass filter with center frequency f c and
bandwidth 2W.
• Demodulation of DSB-SC AM Signals
• Demodulation of SSB Signals with pilot tone
 3.2.6 Signal Multiplexing
• Multiplexing: The process of combining a number of
separate message signals into a composite signal for
transmission over a common channel.
• All message signals can be recovered at the receivers.
• Three common methods
– Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is used to transmit digital
signals.
– Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is used to transmit either
analog or digital signals.
– Code-division multiplexing (CDM) is used to transmit digital
signals.
Frequency Division Multiplexing
• The message signals are separated in frequency; each
signal modulates a separated carrier.
• The lowpass filters at the transmitter ensures that the
bandwidth of the message signals is limited to W Hz.

• At the receiver, the signals are usually separated by

passing through a parallel bank of bandpass filters.
• The output of each bandpass filter is demodulated.
• FDM system
• Quadrature-Carrier Multiplexing
– Two message signal m1 (t ) and m2 (t ) .
– Transmit two message signals on the same carrier frequency
• Two signals are modulated into u(t) by
u(t )  Ac m1 (t ) cos(2f ct )  Ac m2 (t ) sin(2f ct )
• The two message signals are demodulated by
mˆ 1 (t )  LPF [u(t ) cos(2f ct )]
mˆ 2 (t )  LPF [u (t ) sin(2f ct )]
 AM-radio Broadcasting
• Commercial AM-radio broadcasting utilizes the frequency
band 535-1605 kHz for the transmission of voice and
music. Carrier spacing is 10 kHz.
• The baseband message signal m(t) is limited to 5 kHz.
• Conventional AM is used from an economic standpoint.
The major objective is to reduce the cost of implementing
the receiver.
 3.3 ANGLE MODULATION
• Angle modulation
– Frequency modulation (FM): Frequency is changed by the messag
e signal.
– Phase modulation (PM): Phase is changed by the message signal.
• High degree of noise immunity by bandwidth expansion.
• They are widely used in high-fidelity music broadcasting.
• They are of constant envelope, which is beneficial when
amplified by nonlinear amplifiers.
 3.3.1 Presentation of FM and PM Signal
• An angle-modulated signal
u(t )  Ac cos( (t ))
 (t ) : the phase of the signal.
• Instantaneous frequency f i (t ) is given by
1 d
f i (t )   (t )
2 dt
• Since u(t) is a bandpass signal, it can be represented as
u(t )  Ac cos(2f ct   (t ))

1 d
f i (t )  f c   (t )
2 dt
• If m(t) is the message signal, then in a PM system we have
 ( t )  k p m(t )
k p : phase deviation constant
• In an FM system
1 d
f i (t )  f c  k f m(t )   (t )
2 dt
k f : frequency deviation constant
• From the above relationships we have
 k p m(t ) PM
 (t )   t


2k f  m( )d FM

• On the other hand

 d
d k p m(t ) PM
 (t )   dt
dt  2k f m(t ) FM
• The maximum phase deviation in a PM system
max  k p max m(t ) 
• The maximum frequency-deviation in an FM system
f max  k f max m(t ) 
• The message signal m(t )  a cos(2f mt ) is used to either FM or PM for
the carrier Ac cos(2f c t ) . Find the modulated signal in each case.
Solution:
PM FM t kfa
 (t )  k p m(t )  k p a cos(2f mt )  (t )  2k f 

m( )d 
fm
sin(2f mt )
we have
 Ac cos(2f ct   p cos(2f mt )) PM  p  k pa
u (t )  
 Ac cos(2f c t   f sin( 2f mt )) FM  f  k f a / fm
Modulation index

• Modulation index for a general m(t)

 p  k p max m(t )   max

 f  k f max m(t )  / W  f max / W
• Narrowband Angle Modulation: If for all t , we have  (t )  1
then we can use the approximation
u (t )  Ac cos(2 f ct   (t ))
 Ac cos(2 f ct ) cos( (t ))  Ac sin(2 f ct ) sin( (t ))
 Ac cos(2 f ct )  Ac (t )sin(2 f ct )
• The modulation is very similar to conventional AM
 3.3.2 Spectral Characteristics of Angle-
Modulated Signals
• Assume that the message is a sinusoidal signal
u(t )  Ac cos(2f c t   sin(2f mt ))

 Re Ac e j 2f ct e j sin( 2f mt ) 
• The signal sin(2f mt ) is periodic with period Tm  1 / f m .
The same is also true for the complex exponential signal
e j sin( 2f mt )
• Fourier series representation with coefficient
1

cn  f m 
0
fm
e j sin( 2f mt ) e  jn 2f mt dt
u  2 f m t
1 2


J n (  ) :Bessel function
 e j (  sin u nu ) du
2 0 of the first kind of
order n
• Therefore, we have

e j sin( 2f m t )
 
n  
J n (  )e j 2nf mt

• Finally we obtain
  j 2nf m t j 2f c t 
u(t )  Re  Ac
 n 
J n (  )e  e 


  A J (  ) cos(2 ( f
n  
c n c  nf m )t )

• The actual bandwidth of the modulated signal is infinite.

However, the amplitude of the sinusoidal components of
frequencies f c  nf m for large n is very small.
• Property:
 J n (  ) n even
J n (  )  
 J n (  ) n odd
• Example:
c(t )  10 cos(2f ct ) m(t )  cos(20t )
k f  50
Find the expression for the frequency modulated signal and
determine how many harmonics should be selected to
contain 99% of the modulated signal2
power.
Ac 100
Solution: The total power Pc    50
2 2
The modulated signal
u(t )  10 cos 2f ct  2k f cos(20 )d 
 t

   
 50 
 10 cos 2f ct  sin(20t ) 
 10 
 10 cos 2f c t  5 sin(20t ) 
• The modulation index is given by
max m(t ) 
  kf 5
fm
• Therefore

u (t )   A J (  ) cos(2 ( f
n  
c n c  nf m )t )

 10 J (5) cos(2 ( f
n  
n c  10n )t )

• We have to choose k large enough such that

k
100 J n2 (5)

n k 2
 0.99  50

• The solution k=6.

• In general the effective bandwidth of an angle-modulated signal,
which contains at least 98% of the signal power, is given by
Bc  2(   1) f m
• Let the message signal be given by
m(t )  a cos(2f mt )
• The bandwidth of the modulated signal is given by

2 k p a  1 f m PM
Bc  2   1 f m  
 2 k f a  f m  FM
• FM occupies less bandwidth then PM .
• Carson’s rule: For general message signal, the bandwidth of the angle-
modulated signal is given by
 k p max m(t )  PM

Bc  2(   1)W    k f max m(t ) 
 FM
W
 3.3.3 Implementation of Angle Modulators
and Demodulators
• Design an oscillator whose frequency changes with the
input voltage.
• Voltage-controlled oscillator
– Varactor diode - capacitance changed with the applied voltage.
– A inductor L0 with the varactor diode is used in the oscillator
circuit.
 • Let the capacitance of the varactor diode is given by
C (t )  C0  k0m(t )
• When m(t) = 0, the frequency of the tuned circuit is given
by 1
fc 
2 L0C0
• In general for nonzero m(t), we have
1 1 1 1
f i (t )    fc
2 L0 (C0  k0m(t )) 2 L0C0 k k
1  0 m(t ) 1  0 m(t )
C0 C0
• Assuming that
k0  1
  1  1   1 and  1  / 2
C0 m(t ) 2 1  / 2
 k0 
• We have f i(t )  f c 1  m(t ) 
 2C0 
• Indirect method for generation of FM and PM signals
– generate a narrow band angle-modulated signal
– change the narrow band signal to wideband signal
 • Generate wideband angle-modulated signals from narrow
band angle-modulated signals
– frequency multiplier
– implemented by nonlinear device and bandpass filters

Input: un (t )  Ac cos(2 fc t   (t )) Output: y (t )  Ac cos(2 nfc t  n (t ))

• Using down converter u(t )  Ac cos(2 ( nf c  f LO )t  n (t ))

• A nonlinear device followed by a bandpass filter tuned to
the desired center frequency can be used as frequency
multiplier.
• For example, assume a nonlinear device has the function

y (t )  un2 (t )

• The output signal will be

y (t )  Ac2 cos 2 (2 f c t   (t ))
Ac2 1 2
  Ac cos(2 (2 f c )t  2 (t ))
2 2
• The frequency is multiplied by a factor of 2.
• FM demodulation
– generate an AM signal
– use AM demodulator to recover the message signal
• Pass the FM signal through a filter with response
Bc
H ( f )  V0  k ( f  f c ) for f  f c 
2
• If the input to the system is
u(t )  Ac cos 2f c t  2k f m( )d 
t

 
 
the output
v0 (t )  Ac (V0  kk f m(t )) cos 2f c t  2k f m( )d 
t

 
 
• The above signal is an AM signal.
 FM to AM converter: Tuned circuit implementation
But, usually the linear region of the frequency characteristic
may not be wide enough.

Amplitude Response
Linear Region

FM Signal
Output Signal
u (t ) L C
x(t )
f
fc

(a) (b)
• Balanced discriminator
– use two tuned circuits
– connect in series to form a lin
ear frequency response regio
n.
 R

L1 C1

u (t ) m(t )

L2 C2

Bandpass filter Envelope detector

(a)

Amplitude Response
Amplitude Response

f
f1 f2

f
f1 f2

(b)
Linear region

(c)
• FM demodulator with feedback
• FM demodulator with phase-locked loop (PLL)

t
Input : u(t )  Ac cos 2f ct   (t )  (t )  2k f 

m( )d
VCO output: t
yv (t )  Av sin 2f ct  v (t ) v (t )  2kv  v ( )d


Phase Comparator:
e(t )  Av Ac sin[ (t )  v (t )]  [ (t )  v (t )]  e (t )
• Linearized model of the PLL


e (t )   (t )  2kv v ( )d
0

or
d d
e (t )  2kv v (t )   (t )
dt dt
d  d
dt 
e (t )  2kv e ( )g (t   )d   (t )
0 dt
• By taking the Fourier transform
( j 2f ) e ( f )  2kv  e ( f )G ( f )  ( j 2f ) ( f )
1
 e ( f )  ( f )
 kv 
1   G ( f )
 jf 
G( f )
 V ( f )   e ( f )G ( f )  ( f )
k 
1   v G ( f )
 jf 
• Suppose that we design G(f) such that
G( f ) j 2f
kv  1 V( f )  ( f )
jf 2kv

1 d kf v(t) is the demodulated signal

v (t )   ( t )  m(t )
2kv dt kv
 3.4 RADIO AND TELEVISION
BROADCASTING
• AM Radio
• FM Radio
• Television
 3.4.1 AM Radio Broadcasting
• AM Radio Broadcasting
– 535-1605 kHz
– 10 kHz carrier spacing
– bandwidth of m(t) is 5kHz.
– Superheterodyne receiver with intermediate frequency f IF  455 kHz
– two frequency components f IF and 2 f c  f IF are produced after
the mixer

f LO  f c  f IF
• Rejection of the radio signal at the image frequency
f c'  f LO  f IF
• Assume there are two received signal
r1 (t )  Ac [1  m1 (t )] cos(2f ct )
r2 (t )  Ac [1  m2 (t )] cos(2f c't )
The mixer output consists of the two signals Desired signal

y1 (t )  Ac [1  m1 (t )] cos(2f IF t ) Interference
y2 (t )  Ac [1  m2 (t )] cos(2f IF t ) from image
channel

• The RF amplifier bandwidth is designed to be sufficiently

narrow so that the image frequency signal is rejected
BRF  2 f IF
• The IF amplifier has bandwidth of 10kHz to reject signal
from adjacent channels.
 3.4.2 FM Radio Broadcasting
• FM Radio Broadcasting
– 88 - 108 MHz
– 200 kHz carrier spacing
– peak-frequency deviation 75 kHz
– Superheterodyne receiver with intermediate frequency f IF  10.7 MHz
 BW  200kHz

f LO  f c  f IF
 FM-Stereo Broadcasting
• Many FM-stereo stations transmit music programs
in stereo by using the outputs of two microphones.
• A pilot tone at the frequency of 19 kHz is added to
the signal for the purpose of demodulating the
DSB-SC AM signal.
• A monophonic FM receiver can recover the
summed signal L+R by using a conventional FM
demodulator. Hence, FM-stereo broadcasting is
compatible with conventional FM.
FM Stereo Transmitter
FM Stereo Receiver
 3.4.3 Television Broadcasting
• 1936 BBC black-and-white picture transmission
• Black-and-white TV Signal.
• The two dimensional image is converted to a one-
dimensional electrical signal by sequentially scanning the
image.
• The scanning of the electron beam in the CRT is controlled
by two voltage applied across the horizontal and vertical
deflection plates.
• In commercial TV broadcasting, the bandwidth of the
video signal is is limited to W = 4.2Mhz.
• VSB modulation is employed, the total transmission
bandwidth is around 6Mhz.
Interlaced pattern with rate 1/60 sec
A typical video signal
• The audio portion of the TV signal is
transmitted is limited to W= 10 kHz.
• The peak frequency deviation in the FM-
modulated signal is selected as 25 kHz, and
the FM-signal bandwidth is 70 kHz.
 3.5 Mobile Radio Systems
• Cellular concept
 Terminologies
• The simultaneous transmission between two
parties is called full-duplex operation.
• In analog cellular system, the 3 kHz audio
signal is transmitted via FM using a channel
bandwidth of 30 kHz. This represents a
bandwidth expansion of approximately a
factor of 10.