3CP Culture, Communic Ation, Context and POWER

3CP
CULTURE,
COMMUNIC
ATION,
CONTEXT
and POWER
CULTURE
Culture has been defined in
many ways—from a pattern of
perceptions that influence
communication to a site of
contestation and conflict.
WEN
SHU Culture = unique human efforts (as different from
LEE nature and biology)
Culture=refinement, mannerism (as different
COM from things that are crude, vulgar, and

unrefined)
MON
Culture=civilization (as different from backward
barbaric people)
USES
Culture = shared language, beliefs, values (as
different from language beliefs and values that
are not shared; dissenting voices; and voices of
the “other”)
Because there are many

acceptable definitions of OF Culture = dominant or hegemonic culture (as
different from marginal cultures)
THE
culture, and because it is a
complex concept, it is
important to reflect on the
centrality of culture in our Culture = the shifting tensions between the
TERM
own interactions. shared and the unshared (as different from
shared or unshared things)
the best approach to understanding the complexities of intercultural
communication is to view the concept of culture from different perspectives
SOCIAL SCIENCE INTEPRETIVE CRITICAL
CULTURE IS:
Learned and shared Heterogeneous, dynamic

Learned and shared
Contextual symbolic meanings

Site of contested meanings
Patterns of perception Involves emotion
THE RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN CULTURE AND
COMMUNICATION:
Culture influences communication. Culture influences communication.

Communication reshapes culture.
Communication reinforces culture.
SOCIAL SCIENCE DEFINITIONS:
CULTURE AS LEARNED, GROUP-
RELATED PERCEPTIONS
Every person carries within him or herself patterns of thinking, feeling, and potential acting which were
learned throughout [his or her] lifetime. Much of [these patterns are] acquired in early childhood, because at
that time a person is most susceptible to learning and assimilating
Intercultural communication scholars, who use

the social science approach, are most interested
in identifying these cultural differences in
perception and behavior and then trying to
understand how these differences impact
communication between individuals with
varying backgrounds.
INTERPRETIVE DEFINITIONS:
CULTURE AS CONTEXTUAL
SYMBOLIC PATTERNS OF
MEANING, INVOLVING EMOTIONS
“a socially constructed and historically transmitted pattern of symbols, meaning, premises, and rules”
Taking an interpretive perspective, scholars

analyze verbal and nonverbal activities that
have symbolic significance (The importance or
meaning that most members of a cultural group
attach to a communication activity) for the
members of cultural groups to understand the
rules and patterns followed by the groups
CRITICAL DEFINITIONS:
CULTURE AS HETEROGENEOUS,
DYNAMIC, AND A CONTESTED
ZONE
what is the “Indonesia culture”? Is there an Indonesian culture? How many perceptions, attitudes, and beliefs
and behaviors are actually shared among the many diverse people living in the Indonesia?
cultural boundaries are often contested and not

Can we ever truly know a culture let alone our own?
easily agreed upon. For example, increasing
How culture is positioned? Who benefits from
numbers of people have multicultural
specific versions and interpretations of culture?
identities, growing up to negotiate multiple
Which power forces and structures help to shape and
cultural realities. Perhaps the best known is
represent culture in these ways? What does it mean
President Barack Obama, whose father was an
for us in a complex intercultural world? (Halualani,
exchange student from Kenya and his mother a
2011, p. 44).
U.S. American student.
COMMUNICATION
The defining characteristic of
communication is meaning, and
we could say that communication
occurs whenever someone
attributes meaning to another
person’s words or actions.
COMMUNI
CATION
COMMUNICATION MAY BE
UNDERSTOOD AS A “SYMBOLIC
PROCESS WHEREBY REALITY IS
PRODUCED, MAINTAINED, REPAIRED
AND TRANSFORMED”
The three perspectives emphasize different aspects of this communication process.
THE SOCIAL SCIENCE

PERSPECTIVE EMPHASIZES THE
VARIOUS COMPONENTS OF
COMMUNICATION
There is a sender/receiver, message,

channel, and context. This
perspective also emphasizes that
communication tends to be patterned
and therefore can be predicted. This
tradition also focuses on the
variables, or influences on the
communication, like gender, or the
nature of a relationship.
AND TRANSFORMED”
THE INTERPRETIVE PERSPECTIVE EMPHASIZES THE The interpretive perspective also

SYMBOLIC, PROCESSUAL NATURE OF emphasizes that the process by which we
COMMUNICATION; negotiate meaning is dynamic.
When we enter into communication with

the symbolic nature of communication means that the another person, we simultaneously take
words we speak or the gestures we make have no in messages through all of our senses.
inherent meaning. Rather, they gain their significance
from an agreed-upon meaning. When we use symbols to When we negotiate meaning, we are
communicate, we assume that the other person shares our creating, maintaining, repairing, or
symbol system. Also, these symbolic meanings are transforming reality. This implies that
conveyed both verbally and nonverbally. Thousands of people are actively involved in the
nonverbal behaviors (gestures, postures, eye contact, communication process. One person
facial expressions, and so on) involve shared meaning. cannot communicate alone.
AND TRANSFORMED”
THE CRITICAL PERSPECTIVE EMPHASIZES THE

IMPORTANCE OF SOCIETAL FORCES IN THE
COMMUNICATION PROCESS
all voices and symbols are not equal, but are arranged in
a social hierarchy in which some individual
characteristics are more highly valued than others. In
addition, powerful social symbols—for example, flags,
national anthems—also communicate meaning
nonverbally. Many of these symbols are material as well;
that is, they have material consequences in the world.
CULTURE
AND
COMMUNI
CATION
A DIALECTICAL PERSPECTIVE ASSUMES THAT
CULTURE AND COMMUNICATION ARE
INTERRELATED AND RECIPROCAL. THAT IS,
CULTURE INFLUENCES COMMUNICATION, AND
VICE VERSA.
“All communities in all places at all times manifest their own view of reality in what they do. The
entire culture re ects the contemporary model of reality” (Burke, 1985, p. 11).
HOW CULTURE INFLUENCES
COMMUNICATION
KLUCKHOHN AND STRODTBECK

VALUE ORIENTATIONS THE NATURE OF HUMAN NATURE
Values are the most deeply felt beliefs

shared by a cultural group; they reflect
a shared perception of what ought to be,
and not what is. Intercultural conflicts
are often caused by differences in value
orientations.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
HOW CULTURE INFLUENCES
HUMAN AND NATURE COMMUNICATION
Do human dominate over nature or
nature dominate human ? or living in
harmony with nature ?
ORIENTATION TO TIME
PREFERRED FORMS OF
ACTIVITY
Human activity value. There is the “doing” Emphasize the future. Consider the practices
orientation, which emphasizes productivity of depositing money in retirement accounts or
and The “growing” orientation emphasizes keeping appointment books that reach years
spiritual aspects of life or to emphasize into the future. Other societies seem to
“being,” a kind of self-actualization in which emphasize the importance of the present, a
the individual is fused with the experience recognition of the value of living fully in and
realizing the potential of the present moment.
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN Many societies strongly emphasize the past,

HUMANS believing that knowledge and awareness of
Some cultural groups value history have something to contribute to an
individualism, whereas others are more understanding of contemporary life.
group oriented. The cultural differences
pertaining to these values distinguish
two types of societies. Individualism
and collectivistic society
CONTEXT
AND
COMMUNI
CATION
CONTEXT TYPICALLY IS CREATED BY THE
PHYSICAL/VIRTUAL OR SOCIAL ASPECTS OF THE
SITUATION IN WHICH COMMUNICATION OCCURS
Context is neither static nor objective, and it can be multilayered. Context may consist of the social,
political, and historical structures in which the communication occurs. Not surprisingly, the social
context is determined on the societal level. The political context in which communication occurs,
whether online or face-to- face, includes those forces that attempt to change or retain existing social
structures and relationships.
We also need to examine the historical context of communication. For example, the meaning of a
college degree depends in part on the particular school’s reputation. Why does a degree from
Harvard communicate a di erent meaning than a degree from an obscure state university?
POWER
AND
COMMUNI
CATION
CONTEXT TYPICALLY IS CREATED BY THE
PHYSICAL/VIRTUAL OR SOCIAL ASPECTS OF THE
SITUATION IN WHICH COMMUNICATION OCCURS
In every society a social hierarchy exists that privileges some groups over others. Those groups
that function at the top of the social hierarchy determine to a great extent the communication
system of the entire society.
TWO LEVELS OF GROUP-RELATED POWER: (1)
THE PRIMARY DIMENSIONS—AGE, ETHNICITY,
GENDER, PHYSICAL ABILITIES, RACE, AND
SEXUAL ORIENTATION—WHICH ARE MORE
PERMANENT IN NATURE AND (2) THE
SECONDARY DIMENSIONS—EDUCATIONAL
BACKGROUND, GEOGRAPHIC LOCATION,
MARITAL STATUS, AND SOCIO- ECONOMIC
STATUS—WHICH ARE MORE CHANGEABLE
(LODEN & ROSENER, 1991)
The dominant communication systems ultimately impede
those who do not share the systems
Power also comes from social institutions and the roles

individuals occupy in those institutions.
Power is dynamic. It is not a simple one-way proposition.
Dominant cultural groups attempt to perpetuate their

positions of privilege in many ways. However,
subordinate groups can resist this domination in many
ways too.
“
Power is complex, especially in relation to institutions or the social structure. Some inequities, such
as in gender, class, or race, are more rigid than those created by temporary roles such as student or
teacher. The power relations between student and teacher, for example, are more complex if the
teacher is a female challenged by male students. We really can’t understand intercultural
communication without considering the power dynamics in the interaction.

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3CP

LEE nature and biology)

Culture=refinement, mannerism (as different

COM from things that are crude, vulgar, and

Because there are many

SOCIAL SCIENCE INTEPRETIVE CRITICAL

Learned and shared Heterogeneous, dynamic

Contextual symbolic meanings

Culture influences communication. Culture influences communication.

Intercultural communication scholars, who use

Taking an interpretive perspective, scholars

cultural boundaries are often contested and not

THE SOCIAL SCIENCE

There is a sender/receiver, message,

THE INTERPRETIVE PERSPECTIVE EMPHASIZES THE The interpretive perspective also

When we enter into communication with

THE CRITICAL PERSPECTIVE EMPHASIZES THE

KLUCKHOHN AND STRODTBECK

Values are the most deeply felt beliefs

RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN Many societies strongly emphasize the past,

Power also comes from social institutions and the roles

Power is dynamic. It is not a simple one-way proposition.

Dominant cultural groups attempt to perpetuate their

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