Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION TO
POWER ELECTRONICS
SYSTEMS

• Definition and concepts

• Application
• Power semiconductor switches
• Gate/base drivers
• Losses
• Snubbers

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 Definition of Power Electronics
DEFINITION:
To convert, i.e to process and control the flow of
electric power by supplying voltage s and currents in a
form that is optimally suited for user loads.

• Basic block diagram

POWER POWER
INPUT OUTPUT
v,i
i i Power v,i
o o

Processor
Source Load

measurement
Controller
reference

• Building Blocks:
– Input Power, Output Power
– Power Processor
– Controller

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 Power Electronics (PE) Systems
• To convert electrical energy from one form to
another, i.e. from the source to load with:
– highest efficiency,
– highest availability
– highest reliability
– lowest cost,
– smallest size
– least weight.

• Static applications
– involves non-rotating or moving mechanical
components.
– Examples:
• DC Power supply, Un-interruptible power
supply, Power generation and transmission
(HVDC), Electroplating, Welding, Heating,
Cooling, Electronic ballast

• Drive applications
– intimately contains moving or rotating
components such as motors.
– Examples:
• Electric trains, Electric vehicles, Air-
conditioning System, Pumps, Compressor,
Conveyer Belt (Factory automation).

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 Application examples

Static Application: DC Power

Supply

AC voltage DC-DC
DIODE FILTER LOAD
RECTIFIER CONVERTER

AC LINE
VOLTAGE Vcontrol
(1 or 3 )
(derived from
feedback circuit)

Drive Application: Air-Conditioning System

Power Source Temperature and

Variable speed drive
humidity

Power Motor Air Building

Electronics conditioner Cooling
Converter

Desired
temperature Indoor temperature
System and humidity Indoor
Controller sensors
Desired
humidity

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 Power Conversion concept:
example
• Supply from TNB: Vs (Volt)

50Hz, 240V RMS

(340V peak).
Customer need DC
voltage for welding tim
e
purpose, say.

• TNB sine-wave
supply gives zero DC
component!
+ +
Vs Vo
• We can use simple _ _
half-wave rectifier. A
fixed DC voltage is
now obtained. This is
a simple PE system.
Vo

Average output voltage :

Vm Vdc
Vo 
 tim
e

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 Conversion Concept
How if customer wants variable DC voltage?
More complex circuit using SCR is required.

vs

ig
t
ia

vo
+ +
vs vo
_ _
t

ig

Average output voltage :

 t

1  Vm
Vo   Vm sin   t  dt  1  cos  
2  2
By controlling the firing angle, ,the output DC
voltage (after conversion) can be varied..

Obviously this needs a complicated electronic

system to set the firing current pulses for the SCR.
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Power Electronics Converters
AC to DC: RECTIFIER

AC input DC output

DC to DC: CHOPPER

DC input DC output

DC to AC: INVERTER

DC input AC output

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 Current issues
1. Energy scenario
• Need to reduce dependence on fossil fuel
– coal, natural gas, oil, and nuclear power resource
Depletion of these sources is expected.

• Tap renewable energy resources:

– solar, wind, fuel-cell, ocean-wave

• Energy saving by PE applications. Examples:

– Variable speed compressor air-conditioning system:
30% savings compared to thermostat-controlled
system.
– Lighting using electronics ballast boost efficiency of
fluorescent lamp by 20%.

2. Environment issues
• Nuclear safety.
– Nuclear plants remain radioactive for thousands of
years.
• Burning of fossil fuel
– emits gases such as CO2, CO (oil burning), SO2, NOX
(coal burning) etc.
– Creates global warming (green house effect), acid rain
and urban pollution from smokes.
• Possible Solutions by application of PE. Examples:
– Renewable energy resources.
– Centralization of power stations to remote non-urban
area. (mitigation).
– Electric vehicles.

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 PE growth

• PE rapid growth due to:

– Advances in power (semiconductor) switches
– Advances in microelectronics (DSP, VLSI,
microprocessor/microcontroller, ASIC)
– New ideas in control algorithms
– Demand for new applications

• PE is an interdisciplinary field:
– Digital/analogue electronics
– Power and energy
– Microelectronics
– Control system
– Computer, simulation and software
– Solid-state physics and devices
– Packaging
– Heat transfer

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 Power semiconductor devices
(Power switches)
• Power switches:
work-horses of PE
systems.
POWER SWITCH

• Operates in two states:

– Fully on. i.e. I
switch closed. Vswitch= 0
– Conducting state Vin

– Fully off , i.e. SWITCH ON (fully closed)

switch opened.
I=0
– Blocking state
Vswitch= Vin
Vin
• Power switch never
operates in linear
SWITCH OFF (fully opened)
mode.

• Can be categorised into three groups:

– Uncontrolled: Diode :
– Semi-controlled: Thyristor (SCR).
– Fully controlled: Power transistors: e.g. BJT,
MOSFET, IGBT, GTO, IGCT
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Photos of Power Switches
(From Powerex Inc.)

• Power Diodes
– Stud type
– “Hockey-puck”
type

• IGBT
– Module type:
Full bridge and
three phase

• IGCT
– Integrated with
its driver
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 Power Diode
Id
A (Anode)

+
Id Vd
_ Vr

Vf Vd
K (Cathode)

Diode: Symbol v-i characteristics

• When diode is forward biased, it conducts current

with a small forward voltage (Vf) across it (0.2-3V)

• When reversed (or blocking state), a negligibly

small leakage current (uA to mA) flows until the
reverse breakdown occurs.

• Diode should not be operated at reverse voltage

greater than Vr

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 Reverse Recovery

IF
trr= ( t2 - t0 )

t2
t0
VR
IRM
VRM

• When a diode is switched quickly from forward to

reverse bias, it continues to conduct due to the
minority carriers which remains in the p-n junction.

• The minority carriers require finite time, i.e, trr

(reverse recovery time) to recombine with opposite
charge and neutralise.

• Effects of reverse recovery are increase in switching

losses, increase in voltage rating, over-voltage
(spikes) in inductive loads

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 Softness factor, Sr

Snap-off

IF Sr= ( t2 - t1 )/(t1 - t0)

= 0.3

t0
VR

t1 t2

Soft-recovery
IF Sr= ( t2 - t1 )/(t1 - t0)
= 0.8

t1 t2
t0
VR

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 Types of Power Diodes

• Line frequency (general purpose):

– On state voltage: very low (below 1V)
– Large trr (about 25us) (very slow response)
– Very high current ratings (up to 5kA)
– Very high voltage ratings(5kV)
– Used in line-frequency (50/60Hz) applications
such as rectifiers

• Fast recovery
– Very low trr (<1us).
– Power levels at several hundred volts and
several hundred amps
– Normally used in high frequency circuits

• Schottky
– Very low forward voltage drop (typical 0.3V)
– Limited blocking voltage (50-100V)
– Used in low voltage, high current application
such as switched mode power supplies.

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 Thyristor (SCR)
Ia
A (Anode)
Ia

+ Ig>0
Vak Ig=0
Ig Ih
_ Vr
Ibo
G (Gate)
Vak
Vbo
K (Cathode)

Thyristor: Symbol v-i characteristics

• If the forward breakover voltage (Vbo) is exceeded,

the SCR “self-triggers” into the conducting state.

• The presence of gate current will reduce Vbo.

• “Normal” conditions for thyristors to turn on:

– the device is in forward blocking state (i.e Vak is
positive)
– a positive gate current (Ig) is applied at the gate

• Once conducting, the anode current is latched. Vak

collapses to normal forward volt-drop, typically 1.5-
3V.
• In reverse -biased mode, the SCR behaves like a
diode.
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 Thyristor Conduction
ig
vs
ia

+ t
+
vs vo
_ _ vo

t

ig

 t

• Thyristor cannot be turned off by applying negative

gate current. It can only be turned off if Ia goes
negative (reverse)
– This happens when negative portion of the of
sine-wave occurs (natural commutation),

• Another method of turning off is known as “forced

commutation”,
– The anode current is “diverted” to another
circuitry.

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 Types of thyristors
• Phase controlled
– rectifying line frequency voltage and current
for ac and dc motor drives
– large voltage (up to 7kV) and current (up to
4kA) capability
– low on-state voltage drop (1.5 to 3V)

• Inverter grade
– used in inverter and chopper
– Quite fast. Can be turned-on using “force-
commutation” method.

• Light activated
– Similar to phase controlled, but triggered by
pulse of light.
– Normally very high power ratings

• TRIAC
– Dual polarity thyristors

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 Controllable switches
(power transistors)

• Can be turned “ON”and “OFF” by relatively

very small control signals.

• Operated in SATURATION and CUT-OFF

modes only.

• No “linear region” operation is allowed due to

excessive power loss.

• In general, power transistors do not operate in

latched mode.

• Traditional devices: Bipolar junction transistors

(BJT), Metal oxide silicon field effect transistor
( MOSFET), Insulated gate bipolar transistors
(IGBT), Gate turn-off thyristors (GTO)

• Emerging (new) devices: Gate controlled

thyristors (GCT).

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 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
C (collector)

IC
IC

B (base) +
VCE IB
_
IB

E (emitter) VCE (sat) VCE

BJT: symbol (npn) v-i characteristics

• Ratings: Voltage: VCE<1000, Current: IC<400A.

Switching frequency up to 5kHz. Low on-state
voltage: VCE(sat) : 2-3V

• Low current gain (). Need high base current

to obtain reasonable IC .

• Expensive and complex base drive circuit. Hence

not popular in new products.

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 BJT Darlington pair
C (collector)

Driver IC1
Transistor IC Output
Transistor
B (base)
IC2
+
IB1 VCE
_
IB2

Biasing/ E (emitter)
stabilising
network

• Normally used when higher current gain is required

I c1 Ic2
  I c I B1   I c1  I c 2  I B1  
I B1 I B1
 Ic2   I B2   I B1  I c1 
 1        1   2   
 I B 2   I B1   I B1 
 1   2  1  1 
   1   2  1 2
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 Metal Oxide Silicon Field Effect
Transistor (MOSFET)
D (drain)
ID
ID
+
G (gate) VGS
+
VDS _
+ _
VGS
_
VDS
S (source)

MOSFET: symbol v-i characteristics

(n-channel)

• Ratings: Voltage VDS<500V, current IDS<300A.

Frequency f >100KHz. For some low power
devices (few hundred watts) may go up to MHz
range.

• Turning on and off is very simple.

– To turn on: V =+15V GS

– To turn off: V =0 V and 0V to turn off.

GS

• Gate drive circuit is simple

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 MOSFET characteristics
• Basically low voltage device. High voltage device
are available up to 600V but with limited current.
Can be paralleled quite easily for higher current
capability.

• Internal (dynamic) resistance between drain and

source during on state, RDS(ON), , limits the power
handling capability of MOSFET. High losses
especially for high voltage device due to RDS(ON) .

• Dominant in high frequency application

(>100kHz). Biggest application is in switched-
mode power supplies.

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 Insulated Gate Bipolar
Transistor (IGBT)
C (collector)

IC
IC

G (gate) +
VCE VGE
_
+
VGE _

E (emitter)
VCE (sat) VCE
IGBT: symbol v-i characteristics

• Combination of BJT and MOSFET characteristics.

– Gate behaviour similar to MOSFET - easy to turn on
and off.
– Low losses like BJT due to low on-state Collector-
Emitter voltage (2-3V).

• Ratings: Voltage: VCE<3.3kV, Current,: IC<1.2kA

currently available. Latest: HVIGBT 4.5kV/1.2kA.
• Switching frequency up to 100KHz. Typical
applications: 20-50KHz.

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 Gate turn-off thyristor (GTO)
Ia
A (Anode)
Ia

+ Ig>0 Ig=0
Vak Ih
_ Vr
Ibo
G (Gate)
Ig
Vak
Vbo
K (Cathode)

GTO: Symbol v-i characteristics

• Behave like normal thyristor, but can be turned off

using gate signal

• However turning off is difficult. Need very large

reverse gate current (normally 1/5 of anode
current).
• Gate drive design is very difficult due to very large
reverse gate current at turn off.
•
• Ratings: Highest power ratings switch: Voltage:
Vak<5kV; Current: Ia<5kA. Frequency<5KHz.

• Very stiff competition:

Low end-from IGBT. High end from IGCT
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 Insulated Gate-Commutated
Thyristor (IGCT)
A (Anode)
Ia

+
Vak
IGCT
_

Ig

K (Cathode)

IGCT: Symbol

• Among the latest Power Switches.

• Conducts like normal thyristor (latching), but can

be turned off using gate signal, similar to IGBT turn
off; 20V is sufficent.

• Power switch is integrated with the gate-drive unit.

• Ratings:
Voltage: Vak<6.5kV; Current: Ia<4kA.
Frequency<1KHz. Currently 10kV device is being
developed.
• Very low on state voltage: 2.7V for 4kA device

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Power Switches: Power Ratings

1GW
Thyristor
10MW

10MW GTO/IGCT

1MW

100kW IGBT

10kW

MOSFET
1kW

100W

10Hz 1kHz 100kHz 1MHz 10MHz

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 (Base/gate) Driver circuit

Control Driver Power

Circuit Circuit switch

• Interface between control (low power electronics)

and (high power) switch.
• Functions:
– Amplification: amplifies control signal to a
level required to drive power switch
– Isolation: provides electrical isolation between
power switch and logic level

• Complexity of driver varies markedly among

switches.
– MOSFET/IGBT drivers are simple
– GTO and BJT drivers are very complicated and
expensive.

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 Amplification: Example:
MOSFET gate driver
+VGG
From control
circuit +
R1
Rg D
G
VDC
Q1 + S
VGS
LM311 _
_

• Note: MOSFET requires VGS =+15V for turn on

and 0V to turn off. LM311 is a simple amp with
open collector output Q1.

• When B1 is high, Q1 conducts. VGS is pulled to

ground. MOSFET is off.

• When B1 is low, Q1 will be off. VGS is pulled to

VGG. If VGG is set to +15V, the MOSFET turns on.

• Effectively, the power to turn-on the MOSFET

comes form external power supply, VGG

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 Isolation

R1 ig +
vak
-
Pulse source
R2 iak

Isolation using Pulse Transformer

From control
circuit D1 Q1 A1 To driver

Isolation using Opto-coupler

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 Switches comparisons (2003)

Thy BJT FET GTO IGBT IGCT

Avail- Early Late 70s Early Mid 80s Late 80s Mid 90’s
abilty 60s 80s
State of Mature Mature Mature/ Mature Rapid Rapid
Tech. improve improve improvem
ent
Voltage 5kV 1kV 500V 5kV 3.3kV 6.5kV
ratings

Current 4kA 400A 200A 5kA 1.2kA 4kA

ratings

Switch na 5kHz 1MHz 2kHz 100kHz 1kHz

Freq.

On-state 2V 1-2V I* Rds 2-3V 2-3V 3V

Voltage (on)
Drive Simple Difficult Very Very Very Simple
Circuit simple difficult simple
Comm-ents Cannot Phasing Good King in Best Replacing
turn off out in new performan very high overall GTO
using gate product ce in high power performanc
signals freq. e.

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 Application examples
• For each of the following application, choose the
best power switches and reason out why.

– An inverter for the light-rail train (LRT) locomotive

operating from a DC supply of 750 V. The
locomotive is rated at 150 kW. The induction motor
is to run from standstill up to 200 Hz, with power
switches frequencies up to 10KHz.

– A switch-mode power supply (SMPS) for remote

telecommunication equipment is to be developed.
The input voltage is obtained from a photovoltaic
array that produces a maximum output voltage of
100 V and a minimum current of 200 A. The
switching frequency should be higher than 100kHz.

– A HVDC transmission system transmitting power of

300 MW from one ac system to another ac system
both operating at 50 Hz, and the DC link voltage
operating at 2.0 kV.

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 Power switch losses
• Why it is important to consider losses of power
switches?
– to ensure that the system operates reliably under
prescribed ambient conditions
– so that heat removal mechanism (e.g. heat
sink, radiators, coolant) can be specified. losses
in switches affects the system efficiency

• Heat sinks and other heat removal systems are

costly and bulky. Can be substantial cost of the total
system.

• If a power switch is not cooled to its specified

junction temperature, the full power capability of
the switch cannot be realised. Derating of the
power switch ratings may be necessary.

• Main losses:
– forward conduction losses,
– blocking state losses
– switching losses

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 Heat Removal Mechanism

Fin-type Heat SCR (hokey-puck-

Sink type) on power
pak kits

SCR (stud-type) on Assembly of power

air-cooled kits converters

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 Forward conduction loss

Ion Ion +Von

+Von

Ideal switch Real switch

Ideal switch:
– Zero voltage drop across it during turn-on (Von).
– Although the forward current ( Ion ) may be
large, the losses on the switch is zero.

• Real switch:
– Exhibits forward conduction voltage (on state)
(between 1-3V, depending on type of switch)
during turn on.
– Losses is measured by product of volt-drop
across the device Von with the current, Ion,
averaged over the period.

• Major loss at low frequency and DC

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 Blocking state loss

• During turn-off, the switch blocks large voltage.

• Ideally no current should flow through the switch.

But for real switch a small amount of leakage
current may flow. This creates turn-off or blocking
state losses

• The leakage current during turn-off is normally

very small, Hence the turn-off losses are usually
neglected.

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 Switching loss

v P=vi
v i
i

Energy

time time

Ideal switching profile Real switching profile

(turn on) (turn-on)

• Ideal switch:
– During turn-on and turn off, ideal switch requires
zero transition time. Voltage and current are
switched instantaneously.
– Power loss due to switching is zero

• Real switch:
– During switching transition, the voltage requires
time to fall and the current requires time to rise.
– The switching losses is the product of device
voltage and current during transition.

• Major loss at high frequency operation

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 Snubbers
+VL Vce
Ls
i
+ +
Vin Vce
Vce rated
 
time

Simple switch at turn off

• PCB construction, wire loops creates stray

inductance, Ls.
• Using KVL,

di
vin  vs  vce  Ls  vce
dt
di
vce  vin  Ls
dt
since di dt is negative (turning off)
di
vce  vin  Ls
dt
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 RCD Snubbers
• The voltage across the switch is bigger than the
supply (for a short moment). This is spike.

• The spike may exceed the switch rated blocking

voltage and causes damage due to over-voltage.

• A snubber is put across the switch. An example of a

snubber is an RCD circuit shown below.

• Snubber circuit “smoothened” the transition and

make the switch voltage rise more “slowly”. In effect
it dampens the high voltage spike to a safe value.

Vce

Ls
+
Vce
 Vce rated

time

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 Snubbers

• In general, snubbers are used for:

– turn-on: to minimise large overcurrents

through the device at turn-on

– turn-off: to minimise large overvoltages across

the device during turn-off.

– Stress reduction: to shape the device switching

waveform such that the voltage and current
associated with the device are not high
simultaneously.

• Switches and diodes requires snubbers. However,

new generation of IGBT, MOSFET and IGCT do
not require it.

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Ideal vs. Practical power switch

Ideal switch Practical switch

Block arbitrarily large Finite blocking voltage

forward and reverse with small current flow
voltage with zero during turn-off
current flow when off

Conduct arbitrarily Finite current flow and

large currents with appreciable voltage drop
zero voltage drop during turn-on (e.g. 2-3V
when on for IGBT)

Switch from on to off Requires finite time to

or vice versa reach maximum voltage
instantaneously when and current. Requires
triggered time to turn on and off.

Very small power In general voltage driven

required from control devices (IGBT,
source to trigger the MOSFET) requires small
switch power for triggering.
GTO requires substantial
amount of current to turn
off.

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