CYCLIC CODES

EE 430 \ Dr. Muqaibel Cyclic Codes 1

 Motivation & Properties of cyclic
code
• Cyclic code are a class of linear block codes. Thus, we can
find generator matrix (G) and parity check matrix (H).
• The reason is that they can be easily implemented with
externally cost effective electronic circuit.
 Definition

• An (n,k) linear code C is cyclic if every cyclic shift of a

codeword in C is also a codeword in C.
If c0 c1 c2 …. cn-2 cn-1 is a codeword, then
cn-1 c0 c1 …. cn-3 cn-2
cn-2 cn-1 c0 …. cn-4 cn-3
: : : : :
c1 c2 c3 …. cn-1 c0 are all codewords.

EE 430 \ Dr. Muqaibel Cyclic Codes 3

Example: (6,2) repetition code

C    000000,  010101, 101010, 111111  

is a cyclic code.
 Example2: (5,2) linear block code
1 0 1 1 1
G 
 0 1 1 0 1
is a single error correcting code, the set of codeword are:

0 0 0 0 0 Thus, it is not a cyclic code since, for example, the

1 0 1 1 1
cyclic shift of [10111] is [11011]

C
0 1 1 0 1
  C
1 1 0 1 0
 Example 3

• The (7,4) Hamming code discussed before is cyclic:

1010001 1110010 0000000 1111111

1101000 0111001
0110100 1011100
0011010 0101110
0001101 0010111
1000110 1001011
0100011 1100101

EE 430 \ Dr. Muqaibel Cyclic Codes 6

 Generator matrix of a non-systematic (n,k) cyclic
codes
• The generator matrix will be in this form:

g0 g1  gnk 1 gnk 0 0  0 

0 g0 g1  gnk 1 gnk 0  0 

G0 0 g0 g1  gnk 1 gnk 0 0 
 
  
 0 0 0  0 g0  gnk 1 gnk 

notice that the row are merely cyclic shifts of the r n

basis vector 
g  g0g1  gnk 1gnk 00  0 
• The code vector are:
C  m G ; where m  [m0 m1  mk 1 ]
 c 0  m0 g 0
c1  m0 g1  m1g 0
c 2  m0 g 2  m1g1  m2 g 0

c n 1  m0 g n k  m1g n k 1    mn k g 0
Notice that,
k 1
C   m j g 1 ; where m j  0, if j  0 or j  k  1
j 0

This summation is a convolution between and .

m g

• It would be much easier if we deal with multiplication, this transform is done using Polynomial

Representation.
 Code Polynomial

• Let c = c0 c1 c2 …. cn-1. The code polynomial of c:

c(X) = c0 + c1X+ c2 X2 + …. + cn-1 Xn-1
where the power of X corresponds to the bit position, and
the coefficients are 0’s and 1’s.
• Example:
1010001 1+X2+X6
0101110 X+X3+X4+X5
Each codeword is represented by a polynomial of degree
less than or equal n-1. deg[ c(X) ]  n  1

EE 430 \ Dr. Muqaibel Cyclic Codes 9

The addition and multiplication are as follow:

ax j  bx j  (a  b) x j Where (a+b) and (a.b) are under GF(2). But j+k is integral
(ax j ).(bx k )  (a . b) x j  k addition

Example:
m( x )  m0  m1 x  m2 x 2
g ( x )  g 0  g1 x
   m( x )  g ( x )  (m0  g 0 )  (m1  g1 )x  (m2  0)x 2
addition

   m( x )g ( x )  m0 g 0  (m0g1  m1g 0 )x  (m1g1  m2 g 0 )x 2  m2 g1 x 3

Multipliation

Notice that in multiplication the coefficient are the same

as convolution sum
 Implementing the Shift

Let c = c0 c1 c2 …. cn-1
and c(i) = cn-i cn-i+1 c0 …. cn-i-1 (i shifts to the right)
c(X) = c0 + c1X+ c2 X2 + …. + cn-1 Xn-1
c (i)(X) = cn-i + cn-i+1 X + …. + cn-1 Xi-1 + …. +
c0Xi +…. +cn-i-1 Xn-1
What is the relation between c(X) and c (i)(X)?
Apparently, shifting a bit one place to the right is equivalent
to multiplying the term by X.
Xic(X)= c0Xi +c1X i+1 + ….+ cn-i-1 Xn-1 + cn-i Xn ….+ cn-1 Xn+i-1

EE 430 \ Dr. Muqaibel Cyclic Codes 11

 Implementing the Shift (cont’d)

Xic(X) = cn-i Xn +…+cn-1 Xn+i-1 +c0Xi +c1X i+1 + …+ cn-i-1 Xn-1

The first i terms have powers  n, and are not suitable for
representing bit locations.
Add to the polynomial the zero-valued sequence:
(cn-i + cn-i ) + (cn-i+1 + cn-i+1 )X + …. + (cn-1 + cn-1 )Xi-1
Xic(X) = cn-i (Xn +1) + cn-i+1 X (Xn +1)+…. +cn-1 Xi-1 (Xn +1)+
cn-i + cn-i+1 X +…. +cn-1 Xi-1+
c0Xi +c1X i+1 + …. + cn-i-1 Xn-1
That is:
Xic(X) = q(X)(Xn +1) + c(i)(X)

EE 430 \ Dr. Muqaibel Cyclic Codes 12

 Implementing the Shift (cont’d)

c(i)(X) is the remainder from dividing Xic(X) by (Xn +1).

c(i)(X) = Rem[Xic(X)/ (Xn +1)] = Xic(X) mod (Xn +1).
Example:
c = 0101110. c(X) = X + X3 + X4 + X5.
X3c(X) = X4 + X6 + X7 + X8
Rem[X3c(X)/ (X7 +1)] = 1 + X + X4 + X6 [Show]
c(3) = 1100101
Short cut of long division:
Xic(X)|Xn=1 = q(X)(Xn +1) |Xn=1 + c(i)(X) |Xn=1
That is c(i)(X) = Xic(X)|Xn=1

EE 430 \ Dr. Muqaibel Cyclic Codes 13

 More on Code Polynomials

• The nonzero code polynomial of minimum degree in a cyclic

code C is unique.
(If not, the sum of the two polynomials will be a code polynomial of
degree less than the minimum. Contradiction )
• Let g(X) = g0 + g1X +….+ gr-1Xr-1 +Xr be the nonzero code
polynomial of minimum degree in an (n,k) cyclic code. Then
the constant term g0 must be equal to 1.
(If not, then one cyclic shift to the left will produce a code polynomial of
degree less than the minimum. Contradiction )
• For the (7,4) code given in the Table, the nonzero code
polynomial of minimum degree is g(X) = 1 + X + X3

EE 430 \ Dr. Muqaibel Cyclic Codes 14

 Generator Polynomial

• Since the code is cyclic: Xg(X), X2g(X),…., Xn-r-1g(X) are

code polynomials in C. (Note that deg[Xn-r-1g(X)] = n-1).
• Since the code is linear:
(a0 + a1X + …. + an-r-1 Xn-r-1)g(X) is also a code
polynomial, where ai = 0 or 1.
• A binary polynomial of degree n-1 or less is a code
polynomial if and only if it is a multiple of g(X).
(First part shown. Second part: if a code polynomial c(X) is not a
multiple of g(X), then Rem[c(X)/g(X)] must be a code polynomial of
degree less than the minimum. Contradiction)

EE 430 \ Dr. Muqaibel Cyclic Codes 15

 Generator Polynomial (cont’d)

• All code polynomials are generated from the multiplication c(X)

= a(X)g(X).
deg[c(x)] n-1, deg[g(X)] = r, ==> deg[a(x)] n-r-1 
# codewords, (2k) = # different ways of forming a(x), 2n-r
Therefore, r = deg[g(X)] = n-k
• Since deg[a(X)] k-1, the polynomial a(X) may be taken to be

the information polynomial u(X) (a polynomial whose
coefficients are the information bits). Encoding is performed by
the multiplication c(X) = u(X)g(X).
• g(X), generator polynomial, completely defines the code.

EE 430 \ Dr. Muqaibel Cyclic Codes 16

 (7,4) Code Generated by 1+X+X3

Infor. Code Code polynomials

0000 0000000 0 = 0 . g(X)
1000 1101000 1 + X + X3 = 1 . g(X)
0100 0110100 X + X2 + X4 = X . g(X)
1100 1011100 1 + X2 + X3 + X4 = (1 + X) . g(X)
0010 0011010 X2 + X3 + X5 = X2 . g(X)
1010 1110010 1 + X+ X2 + X5 = (1 + X2) . g(X)
0110 0101110 X+ X3 + X4 + X5 = (X+ X2) . g(X)
1110 1000110 1 + X4 + X5 = (1 + X + X2) . g(X)
0001 0001101 X3 + X4 + X6 = X3 . g(X)

EE 430 \ Dr. Muqaibel Cyclic Codes 17

 (7,4) Code Generated by 1+X+X3
(Cont’d)
Infor. Code Code polynomials
1001 1100101 1 + X + X4 + X6 = (1 + X3) . g(X)
0101 0111001 X+ X2 + X3 + X6 = (X+ X3) . g(X)
1101 1010001 1 + X2 + X6 = (1 + X + X3) . g(X)
0011 0010111 X2 + X4 + X5 + X6 = (X2 + X3). g(X)
1011 1111111 1 + X + X 2 + X3 + X4 + X 5 + X 6
= (1 + X2 + X3) . g(X)
0111 0100011 X + X5 + X6 = (X + X2 + X3). g(X)
1111 1001011 1 + X 3 + X5 + X 6
= (1 + X + X2 + X3) . g(X)

EE 430 \ Dr. Muqaibel Cyclic Codes 18

 Constructing g(X)

• The generator polynomial g(X) of an (n,k) cyclic code is a

factor of Xn+1.
Xkg(X) is a polynomial of degree n.
Xkg(X)/ (Xn+1)=1 and remainder r(X). Xkg(X) = (Xn+1)+ r(X).
But r(X)=Rem[Xkg(X)/(Xn+1)]=g(k)(X) =code polynomial= a(X)g(X).
Therefore, Xn+1= Xkg(X) + a(X)g(X)= {Xk + a(X)}g(X). Q.E.D.
(1)To construct a cyclic code of length n, find the factors of the
polynomial Xn+1.
(2)The factor (or product of factors) of degree n-k serves as the
generator polynomial of an (n,k) cyclic code. Clearly, a
cyclic code of length n does not exist for every k.

EE 430 \ Dr. Muqaibel Cyclic Codes 19

 Constructing g(X) (cont’d)

(3)The code generated this way is guaranteed to be cyclic. But

we know nothing yet about its minimum distance. The
generated code may be good or bad.
Example: What cyclic codes of length 7 can be constructed?
X7+1 = (1 + X)(1 + X + X3)(1 + X2 + X3)
g(X) Code g(X) Code
(1 + X) (7,6) (1 + X)(1 + X + X3) (7,3)
(1 + X + X3) (7,4) (1 + X) (1 + X2 + X3) (7,3)
(1 + X2 + X3) (7,4) (1 + X + X3)(1 + X2 + X3) (7,6)

EE 430 \ Dr. Muqaibel Cyclic Codes 20

 Circuit for Multiplying Polynomials (1)

• u(X) = uk-1Xk-1 + …. + u1X + u0

• g(X) = grXr + gr-1Xr-1 + …. + g1X + g0
• u(X)g(X) = uk-1grXk+r-1
+ (uk-2gr+ uk-1gr-1)Xk+r-2 + ….
+ (u0g2+ u1g1 +u2g0)X2 +(u0g1+ u1g0)X +u0g0
+ + + + Output
gr gr-1 gr-2 g1 g0

Input
EE 430 \ Dr. Muqaibel Cyclic Codes 21
 Circuit for Multiplying Polynomials (2)

• u(X)g(X) = uk-1Xk-1(grXr + gr-1Xr-1 + …. + g1X + g0)

+ ….
+ u1X(grXr + gr-1Xr-1 + …. + g1X + g0)
+ u0(grXr + gr-1Xr-1 + …. + g1X + g0)

+ + + +
Output
g0 g1 g2 gr-1 gr

Input
EE 430 \ Dr. Muqaibel Cyclic Codes 22
 Systematic Cyclic Codes

Systematic: b0 b1 b2 …. bn-k-1 u0 u1 u2 …. uk-1

b(X) = b0 + b1X+….+bn-k-1Xn-k-1, u(X) = u0+u1X+ ….+uk-1Xk-1
then c(X) = b(X) + Xn-k u(X)
a(X)g(X) = b(X) + Xn-k u(X)
Xn-k u(X)/g(X) = a(X) + b(X)/g(X)
Orb(X) = Rem[Xn-k u(X)/g(X)]
Encoding Procedure:
1. Multiply u(X) by Xn-k
2. Divide Xn-k u(X) by g(X), obtaining the remainder b(X).
3. Add b(X) to Xn-k u(X), obtaining c(X) in systematic form.

EE 430 \ Dr. Muqaibel Cyclic Codes 23

 Systematic Cyclic Codes (cont’d)

Example
Consider the (7,4) cyclic code generated by
g(X) = 1 + X + X3. Find the systematic codeword for
the message 1001.
u(X) = 1 + X3
X3u(X) = X3 + X6
b(X) = Rem[X3u(x)/g(X)] = X3u(x) |g(X) = 0 = X3u(x) |X3 = X+1
= X3 (X3 +1) = (1 + X)X = X + X2
Therefore, c = 0111001

EE 430 \ Dr. Muqaibel Cyclic Codes 24

 Circuit for Dividing Polynomials

Output

g0 g1 g2 gr-1 gr

+ + + +

Input

EE 430 \ Dr. Muqaibel Cyclic Codes 25

 Encoder Circuit

Gate

g1 g2 gr-1

+ + + +

• Gate ON. k message bits are shifted into the channel. The
parity bits are formed in the register.
• Gate OFF. Contents of register are shifted into the channel.

EE 430 \ Dr. Muqaibel Cyclic Codes 26

 (7,4) Encoder Based on 1 + X + X3
Gate

+ +

Input 1 1 0 1
Register : 000 110 101 100 100
initial 1st shift 2nd shift 3rd shift 4th shift
Codeword: 1 0 0 1 0 1 1

EE 430 \ Dr. Muqaibel Cyclic Codes 27

 Parity-Check Polynomial

• Xn +1 = g(X)h(X)
• deg[g(x)] = n-k, deg[h(x)] = k
• g(x)h(X) mod (Xn +1) = 0.
• h(X) is called the parity-check polynomial. It plays the rule
of the H matrix for linear codes.
• h(X) is the generator polynomial of an (n,n-k) cyclic code,
which is the dual of the (n,k) code generated by g(X).

EE 430 \ Dr. Muqaibel Cyclic Codes 28

 Decoding of Cyclic Codes

• STEPS:
(1) Syndrome computation
(2) Associating the syndrome to the error pattern
(3) Error correction

EE 430 \ Dr. Muqaibel Cyclic Codes 29

 Syndrome Computation

• Received word: r(X) = r0 + r1X +….+ rn-1Xn-1

• If r(X) is a correct codeword, it is divisible by g(X).
Otherwise: r(X) = q(X)g(X) + s(X).
• deg[s(X)]  n-k-1.
• s(X) is called the syndrome polynomial.
• s(X) = Rem[r(X)/g(X)] = Rem[ (a(X)g(X) + e(X))/g(x)] =
Rem[e(X)/g(X)]
• The syndrome polynomial depends on the error pattern only.
• s(X) is obtained by shifting r(X) into a divider-by-g(X) circuit.
The register contents are the syndrome bits.

EE 430 \ Dr. Muqaibel Cyclic Codes 30

 Example: Circuit for Syndrome Computation

Gate

r=
0010110 +
+

Shift Input Register contents

0 0 0 (initial state) • What is g(x)?
1 0 000 • Find the syndrome using
2 1 100 long division.
3 1 110 • Find the syndrome using
4 0 011 the shortcut for the
remainder.
5 1 011
6 0 111
7 0 1 0 1 (syndrome s)
EE 430 \ Dr. Muqaibel Cyclic Codes 31
 Association of Syndrome to Error
Pattern
• Look-up table implemented via a combinational logic circuit (CLC).
The complexity of the CLC tends to grow exponentially with the code
length and the number of errors to correct.
• Cyclic property helps in simplifying the decoding circuit.
• The circuit is designed to correct the error in a certain location only, say
the last location. The received word is shifted cyclically to trap the
error, if it exists, in the last location and then correct it. The CLC is
simplified since it is only required to yield a single output e telling
whether the syndrome, calculated after every cyclic shift of r(X),
corresponds to an error at the highest-order position.
• The received digits are thus decoded one at a time.

EE 430 \ Dr. Muqaibel Cyclic Codes 32

 Meggit Decoder

Shift r(X) into the buffer B and the syndrome register R

simultaneously. Once r(X) is completely shifted in B, R
will contain s(X), the syndrome of r(X).
1. Based on the contents of R, the detection circuit yields the
output e (0 or 1).
2. During the next clock cycle:
(a) Add e to the rightmost bit of B while shifting the
contents of B. (The rightmost bit of B may be read out).
Call the modified content of B r1(1)(X).

EE 430 \ Dr. Muqaibel Cyclic Codes 33

 Meggit Decoder (cont’d)

(b) Add e to the left of R while shifting the contents of R.

The modified content of R is s1(1)(X), the syndrome of r1(1)
(X) [will be shown soon].
Repeat steps 1-2 n times.

EE 430 \ Dr. Muqaibel Cyclic Codes 34

 General Decoding Circuit

EE 430 \ Dr. Muqaibel Cyclic Codes 35

 More on Syndrome Computation
• Let s(X) be the syndrome of a received polynomial r(X) = r0 + r1X +
….+ rn-1Xn-1 . Then the remainder resulting from dividing Xs(X) by
g(X) is the syndrome of r(1)(X), which is a cyclic shift of r(X).
• Proof: r(X) = r0 + r1X +….+ rn-1Xn-1
r(1)(X) = rn-1 + r0X +….+ rn-2Xn-1 = rn-1 + Xr(X) + rn-1Xn
= rn-1(Xn+1) + Xr(X)
c(X)g(X) + y(X) = rn-1 g(X)h(X)+ X{a(X)g(x) + s(X)}
where y(X) is the syndrome of r(1)(X) .
Xs(X) = {c(X) + a(X) + rn-1 h(X)}g(X) + y(X)
Therefore, Syndrome of r(1)(X)= Rem[Xs(X)/g(X)]. Q.E.D.

EE 430 \ Dr. Muqaibel Cyclic Codes 36

More on Syndrome Computation (cont’d)

Note: for simplicity of notation, let Rem[Xs(X)/g(X)] be

denoted by s(1)(X). s(1)(X) is NOT a cyclic shift of s(X), but
the syndrome of r(1)(X) which is a cyclic shift of r(X).
Example:
r(X) = X2 + X4 + X5; g(X) = 1 + X + X3
s(X) = Rem[r(X)/g(X)] = 1 + X2
r(1)(X) = X3 + X5 + X6
s(1)(X) = Rem[r(1)(X)/g(X)] = 1 (polynomial)
Also, s(1)(X) = Rem[Xs(X)/g(X)] = 1.

EE 430 \ Dr. Muqaibel Cyclic Codes 37

More on Syndrome Computation (cont’d)
Gate

Gate +
+
r=
0010110
Shift Input Register contents
0 0 0 (initial state)
1 0 000
2 1 100
3 1 110
4 0 011
5 1 011
6 0 111
7 0 1 0 1 (syndrome s)
8 (input gate off) - 1 0 0 (syndrome s (1) )
9 - 0 1 0 (syndrome s (2) )

EE 430 \ Dr. Muqaibel Cyclic Codes 38

More on Syndrome Computation (cont’d)

Let r(X) = r0 + r1X +….+ rn-1Xn-1 has the syndrome s(X).Then

r(1)(X) = rn-1 + r0 X + ….+ rn-2Xn-1 has the syndrome:
s(1)(X) = Rem[r(1)(X)/g(X)].
Define r1 (X) = r(X) + Xn-1 = r0 + r1X +….+ (rn-1+1)Xn-1
The syndrome of r1 (X), call it s1 (X):
s1 (X)= Rem[{r(X)+ Xn-1}/g(X)] = s(X) + Rem[Xn-1/g(X)]
r1(1)(X), which is one cyclic shift of r1 (X), has the syndrome
s1(1)(X) = Rem[X s1 (X)/g(X)] = Rem[Xs(X)/g(X)+ Xn/g(X)]
= s(1)(X) + 1 (since Xn +1 = g(X)h(X))

EE 430 \ Dr. Muqaibel Cyclic Codes 39

 Worked Example

Consider the (7,4) Hamming code generated by 1+X+X3.

Error pattern Syndrome polynomial.
X6 1 + X2 101
X 1 + X + X2 111
X4 X + X2 011
X3 1+X 110
X2 X2 001
X1 X 010
X0 1 100

Let c = 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 and r = 1 0 1 1 0 1 1

EE 430 \ Dr. Muqaibel Cyclic Codes 40

 Cyclic Decoding of the (7,4) Code

EE 430 \ Dr. Muqaibel Cyclic Codes 41

EE 430 \ Dr. Muqaibel Cyclic Codes 42
 Error Correction Capability
• Error correction capability is inferred from the roots of g(X).
Results from Algebra of Finite Fields:
Xn +1 has n roots (in an extension field)
These roots can be expressed as powers of one element, .
The roots are0, 1 , …., n-1.
The roots occur in conjugates.

 
 i 2 j mod n 
  constitute a conjugate set.
 

EE 430 \ Dr. Muqaibel Cyclic Codes 43

 Designing a Cyclic Code

• Theorem:
If g(X) has l roots (out of it n-k roots) that are consecutive
powers of , then the code it generates has a minimum
distance d = l + 1.
• To design a cyclic code with a guaranteed minimum distance
of d, form g(X) to have d-1 consecutive roots. The parameter
d is called the designed minimum distance of the code.
• Since roots occur in conjugates, the actual number of
consecutive roots, say l, may be greater than d-1. dmin = l + 1
is called the actual minimum distance of the code.

EE 430 \ Dr. Muqaibel Cyclic Codes 44

 Design Example

X15 + 1 has the roots 1= 0, 1 , …., 14.

Conjugate group Corresponding polynomial
0) X1 + X
(, 2 , 4 , 8) X 1 + X + X4
(3 , 6 , 9 , 12) X 1 + X + X2 + X3 + X4
(5 , 10) X 1 + X + X2
(, 14 , 13 , 11) X 1 + X3 + X4

EE 430 \ Dr. Muqaibel Cyclic Codes 45

 Design Example (cont’d)

• Find g(X) that is guaranteed to be a double error correcting

code.
The code must have , 2 , 3 and 4 as roots.
g(X) = XX= 1 + X4 + X6 + X7 + X8
This generator polynomial generates a (15, 7) cyclic code
of minimum distance at least 5.
Roots of g(X) = , 2, 3 , 4 , 6, 8 , 9 , 12.
Number of consecutive roots = 4.
The actual minimum distance of the code is 5.

EE 430 \ Dr. Muqaibel Cyclic Codes 46

 Cyclic Codes
Some Standard Cyclic BCH Codes
Block Codes Linear
Hamming Codes
Codes

• The Hamming Codes: single-error correcting codes

which can be expressed in cyclic form.
• BCH: the Bose-Chaudhuri-Hocquenghem are among the
most important of all cyclic block codes. Extenstion of
Hamming for t-error correcting codes.
• Some Burst-Correcting Codes: good burst-correcting
codes have been found mainly by computer search.
• Cyclic Redundancy Check Codes: shortened cyclic
error-detecting codes used in automatic repeat request
(ARQ) systems.
EE 430 \ Dr. Muqaibel Cyclic Codes 47
 BCH Codes

• Definition of the codes:

• For any positive integers m (m>2) and t0 (t0 < n/2), there is
a BCH binary code of length n = 2m - 1 which corrects all
combinations of t0 or fewer errors and has no more than
mt0 parity-check bits.

Block length 2m  1
Number of parity - check bits n  k  mt 0
min imum distance d min  2t 0  1

EE 430 \ Dr. Muqaibel Cyclic Codes 48

 Table of Some BCH Codes
n k d (designed) d ( actual) g(X)*
7 4 3 3 13
15 11 3 3 23
15 7 5 5 721
15 5 7 7 2463
31 26 3 3 45
31 16 5 7 107657
31 11 7 11 5423325

* Octal representation with highest order at the left.

721 is 111 010 001 representing 1+X4+X6+X7+X8

EE 430 \ Dr. Muqaibel Cyclic Codes 49

 Burst Correcting Codes

• good burst-correcting codes have been found mainly by

computer search.
• The length of an error burst, b, is the total number of bits in
error from the first error to the last error, inclusive.
• The minimum possible number of parity-check bits required
to correct a burst of length b or less is given by the Rieger
bound. r  2b
• The best understood codes for correcting burst errors are
cyclic codes.
• For correcting longer burst interleaving is used.

EE 430 \ Dr. Muqaibel Cyclic Codes 50

 Table of Good Burst-Correcting Codes

n k b g(X) (octal)
7 3 2 35 (try to find dmin!)
15 10 2 65
15 9 3 171
31 25 2 161
63 56 2 355
63 55 3 711
511 499 4 10451
1023 1010 4 22365

EE 430 \ Dr. Muqaibel Cyclic Codes 51

 Cyclic Redundancy Check Codes

• Shortened cyclic codes

• Error-detecting codes
• used in automatic repeat request (ARQ) systems.
• Usually concatenated with error correcting codes

CRC
CRC Error Correction Error Correction
To
To Syndrome
Encoder Decoder Info Sink
Encoder Transmitter
Checker

EE 430 \ Dr. Muqaibel Cyclic Codes 52

 Performance of CRC Codes
• CRC are typically evaluated in terms of their
– error pattern coverage
– Burst error detection capability
– Probability of undetected error
• For a (n,k) CRC the coverage, λ, is the ratio of the number of invalid
blocks of length n to the total number of blocks of length n.
• This ratio is a measure of the probability that a randomly chosen block is
not a valid code block. By definition,

 number
• where r is the
r
1  2of check bits Code Coverage
• For some near-optima CRC codes, CRC-12 0.999756
see table 5.6.5 CRC-ANSI 0.999985
CRC-32A 0.99999999977
EE 430 \ Dr. Muqaibel Cyclic Codes 53
 Simple Modifications to Cyclic Codes
• Expanding (Extending): increasing the length of the code by adding
more parity bits.
– Usually to improve the capability of the code.
– In general, resulting code is not cyclic.
• Shortening: decreasing the number of bits in the code.
– To control the total number of bits in a block…To increase the rate
of the code.
– In general, resulting code is not cyclic.
• Interleaving: improves the burst error-correction capability
– There are many types of interleavers. Consider the Block
interleaver/ de-interleaver

EE 430 \ Dr. Muqaibel Cyclic Codes 54

 Block Interleaver and De-Interleaver

• Try numbers !

EE 430 \ Dr. Muqaibel Cyclic Codes 55