Advanced Imaging 1024

Jan. 7, 2009 Ultrasound Lectures

Lecture 1:Fundamental acoustics History and tour
DG: Jan 7 Wave equation
Diffraction theory
Rayleigh-Sommerfeld
Impulse response
Beams

Lecture 2:Interactions of ultrasound Absorption

with tissue and image formation Reflection
DG: Jan 14
Scatter
Speed of sound
Image formation:
- signal modeling
- signal processing
- statistics
Lecture 3: Doppler Ultrasound I The Doppler Effect
DG: Jan 21 Scattering from Blood
CW, Pulsed, Colour Doppler

Lecture 4: Doppler US II Velocity Estimators

DG: Jan 28 Hemodynamics
Clinical Applications

Lecture 5: Special Topics

Mystery guest: Feb 4 or 11
ULTRASOUND LECTURE 1

Physics of Ultrasound Waves:

The Simple View
ULTRASOUND LECTURE 1

Physics of Ultrasound: Longitudinal and Shear Waves

ULTRASOUND LECTURE 1

Physics of Ultrasound Waves: Surface waves

 ULTRASOUND LECTURE 1

Physics of Ultrasound Waves

1) The wave equation u+Δu
u
x z

u y

t x
Particle Displacement = u
u
Particle Velocity = t  v
 2u v
Particle Acceleration = 2

t t
Equation of Motion

dV
p
p dydz p dydz  dxdydz
x

Net force = ma p = pressure

= P – P0
p v   density
dV  dV
x t

v
or p   (1)
t
Definition of Strain
u S = strain (2)
u  x  Sx ,
x
u

x
bulk modulus

B C
Also p  A S  S 2  S 3  ...
 3! (3)
Nonlinear Terms

Taking the derivative wrt time of (2)

S v
= (4)
t x
Substituting for v from Eq (1) (in one dimension)
S  1 p
 t
t x  x
2S 1 2 p
2

t  x 2

Substituting from (3)

2 p A 2 p
2

t  x 2
2 p 2 2 A
or 2
 c0  p ; c0   wave velocity (5)
t 
3 dimensions
For the one dimensional case solutions are of the form
2
 
p x, t  e j ( t  kx )
; k 

  2 f (6)

for the forward propagating wave.

A closer look at the equation of state and non-linear propagation

Assume adiabatic conditions (no heat transfer)


 

     
P = P0    P0 1  0 
0
 0  



Gamma=ratio of specific heats Condensation = S'
  cp

P = P0 1  S '
 , c
v

Expand as a power series

1 1
P = P0   P0 S    1
'
P0 S '2
 CP0 S 3
'
2 3! ....
A B

   1 Depends solely on
B/A =   1 thermodynamic factors

 Material B/A
Water 5
Soft Tissues 7.5
Fatty Tissues 11

Champagne
(Bubbly liquid)
Nonlinear Wave Equation

 2v 2
2  v
2
 (c0   v) (7)
t x 2

B
  1
2A

In terms of particle velocity, v, Fubini developed a non linear

solution given by:
v x , t   x v ( x, t ) 
 Sin wt  kx   (8)
v0  l v0 

Additional phase term small for small x

and increasingly significant as x  l
l = shock distance
 Shock Distance, l
1 1
l   (9)
 v0   k
  k
 c0 
Mach # 

• At high frequencies the plane wave shock

distance can be small.

• So for example in water:

  3.5 f 0  3.5 MHz p0  1 MPa

Shock distance = 43 mm
We can now expand v / v0 (Eq. 8) in a Fourier series


v v0   Bn Sin n  t  kx  (10)
n 1

2l nx
Where Bn  J n   (11)
nx  l 

Thus the explicit solution is given by

v 
J n nx l 
 2 Sin n t  kx  (12)
v0 n 1 nx l
 Aging of an Ultrasound Wave

Hamilton and Blackstock Nonlinear Acoustics 1998

 Harmonic Amplitude vs Distance
(narrow band, plane wave)
Relative Amplitude

x/l
Hamilton and Blackstock Nonlinear Acoustics 1998
 Focused Circular Piston
2.25 MHz, f/4.2, Aperture = 3.8 cm, focus = 16 cm

Hamilton and Blackstock Nonlinear Acoustics 1998

 Propagation Through the Focus

Hamilton and Blackstock Nonlinear Acoustics 1998

Nonlinear Propagation: Consequences
_______________________

• Generation of shock fronts

• Generation of harmonics

• Transfer of energy out of fundamental

RADIATION OF ULTRASOUND FROM AN APERTURE
We want to consider how the ultrasound propagates in the
field of the transducer. This problem is similar to that of
light (laser) in which the energy is coherent but has the
added complexity of a short pulse duration i.e. a broad
bandwidth.

Start by considering CW diffraction theory based on the linear

equation in 1 dimension

2 p 2
2
 c0 p
t
2 2 2
  
2  2
 2 2
 Laplacian
x y 
The acoustic pressure field of the harmonic radiator
can be written as:


p r , t   Re P r  e jt
 (13)

Where P r  is a complex phasor function satisfying

the Helmholtz Equation

2  k 2  Pr   0 (14)

To solve this equation we make use of Green’s functions

1 Pa G
P r   s  G  Pa ds (15)
4
n n

s = surface area  / n = normal derivative

Pa  P x1 , y1  = pressure at the aperture

Rayleigh Sommerfeld Theory

Assume a planar radiating surface in an infinite “soft” baffel

ld Po in t
~'
r Fie
Conjugate r'
field point  r
n
Aperture

jkr '  jk~

r'
e e
use G r    ~ as the Greens function
r' r'
= 0 in the aperture
Equation 15 can now be written:

1  G 
P r    s  Pa  ds
4  n 
jkr '
G G e
 Cos  2 jk
n r r'
jkr '
 jk e
P r    s Pa ' Cos  ds (16)
2 r

jkr '
1 e
  Pa '
ds
j r
Example

Consider the distribution of pressure along the axis of a

plane circular source:

radius = a

d

 r  z 2   2
z
From Equation (16) in r,  , z coordinates

jk z 2   2
 jkPa a e
P( z )   2 d
2 0
z2   2

The integrand here is an exact differential so that

a
 e jk z 
2 2 
P( z )   jkPa  
 jk 
 0
 
P ( z )  Pa e jkz
e jk z 2  a 2

The pressure amplitude is given by the magnitude of this
expression
k
P( z )  2 Pa Sin
2
 z  a  z  e
2 2 j t

 
2
Pa 2 k 2 
2
I ( z)  4 Sin  z a z  (17)
Z 2 
To look at the form of (17) find an approximation for:

 2
a
z2  a2  z  z 2 1  2   z
 z 

a2
 z 1 2  z
z

 a2 
 z 1  2   z
 2z 

a2

2z
 2
4 Pa  ka 2

 I z   2
Sin  
z  4z 

Maxima ka 2 
m = 1, 3, 5, . . .
 m
4z 2

2  a2 
 m
 4z 2

a2 a2
 m or z 
z m
 a2
Minima z  ; m = 0, 2, 4, 6
m

z  
 2.0

1.8 frequency = 5 MHz

a = 5 mm
1.6

1.4 a2
z   83.3mm 2
ka /(4z)

Intensity * 4pa /Z

1.2
2

M: 54 3 2 1 0
1.0

0.8

0.6
Eq. 17
0.4

0.2

0.0
0 50 100 150 200

Axial Distance (mm)

 THE NEAR FIELD (off axis)

r '  z 2  x0  x1 2   y0  y1 2
y1
( x0  x1 ) 2 ( y0  y1 ) 2
 z 1 2
 x1 y0
z z2 x0
r'
z
Fresnel approximation (Binomial Expansion)
2 2
'
 1 x  x
 0 1 1  0 1 
y  y
r  z 1        (19)
 2  z  2  z  

From (16) we have

1   jk
 x0  x1 2   y0  y1 2 
Px0 , y0     Pa x1 , y1  e e jkz 2 z
dx1dy1
j z  

x0  x1 2 2
 x0  2 x0 x1  x1
2 2 2
y0  y1  y0  2 y0 y1  y1
2
Note that the r’ in the denominator is slowly varying and is
therefore ~ equal to z

Grouping terms we have

e
jkz 
jk 2
 
jk 2
x1  y12 
  P x1, y1  e
x0  y0 2
P( x0 , y0 )  e 2z 2z
j z
K (z)


 jk x x  y y
1 0 1 0 
e z dx1dy1
 
jk 2 2
x1  y1   
Px0 , y0   K  z    Px1 , y1 e
 j 2  x x1  y y1
2z
e dx1dy1

x0 y0
Where x  y  (20)
z z

We can eliminate the quadratic term by

“focusing” the transducer

Thus the diffraction limit of the beam is given by:

P x0 , y0    z P x1, y1 

 Circular Aperture
Consider a plane circular focused radiator in cylindrical
coordinates

radius a

P z, 

z
  r
P z,    z  Circ 
 a
' J 1 x  2 a
 kz Where x  (21)
x z

z
FWHM  1.41
2a

J1 (x) 1.22 z 2a
2
x
Square Aperture
Need to consider the wideband case. Returning to Eq. 16
we have:
jkr '
jk e
Px0 , y0   
  Px1 , y1  ' dx1dy1
2 r

2 2v 
k   
 c c

j r'
j e c
Px0 , y0    
  P x1 , y1  dx1dy1d
2 c r'

j r'
j e c
 
    Px1 , y1  dx1dy1d
2 c r '
This is a tedious integration over 3 variables even after
significant approximations have been made

There must be a better way!

Impulse Response Approach to Field Computations

Begin by considering the equation of motion for an

elemental fluid volume i.e. Eq. 1

v
 p   (22)
t

Now let us represent the particle velocity as the gradient

of a scalar function. We can write

v   
Where  is defined as the velocity potential we are
assuming here that the particle velocity is irrotational

i.e. v  0
~ no turbulence
~ no shear waves
~ no viscosity
Rewrite (22) as

 p  
t
   
0   p 
 t 
 (23)
p  
t
The better way: Impulse response method

pr , t    
 r , t 
t
V0 t 

r'

r
ds
 1 V0 t  r ' c 
 r , t    ds
2 s r'

 
 V0 t  h r , t

Impulse Response
where
1  t  r ' c 
hr , t    ds (24)
2 r'
Thus
V0 t 
pr , t    
t
 
 h r, t (25)
Useful because hr , t  is short!
convolution easy

Also hr , t is an analytic function

No approximations!

Can be used in calculations

You will show that for the CW situation

pr , t     j 0v0  h r , t   0 (26)

 IMPULSE RESPONSE THEORY EXAMPLE

Consider a plane circular radiator

d
r1
r'

r0
1
z
r2 1  t  r ' c 
hr , t   s '
ds
2 r

ds  l ( r ' )  d
r0 is the shortest path to the transducer
r1 near edge of radiating surface
r2 far edge of radiating surface
 d r'
dr '  d
Sin r '   '
d r r'

dr ' r ' 
d 
 r '

ds 
 
l r ' r ' dr ' '
r
 Also let  
So that
c

hr , t   

1  t    l r ' r 'd c
2  r ' 
 l ct c *
hr , t   (27)
* a very powerful formula
2 


l r '  2 while the wavefront lies between

r1 and r2 2 c
ie hr , t   c
2

Thus we have: (next page)

 Planar Circular Aperture
h r, t  
r0
0 0t 
c

2 c r0 r
c t  1
2 c c

c  ct 2
 r
2
  2
 a 2
 r1 r
1
Cos  0 1

t  2
 2 r ((ct ) 2
 r ) 1 2 c c
 0 

r2
0 t
c
Consider the on axis case:
1  0 r0  z r1  r2

z z2  a2
h r, t   c t
c c

 0 otherwise

z small z large
h

t
zc z2  a2
c
 Recall Equ 26
V0
pr , t      h r , t 
t
z small z large
h( r , t )

so that the pressure wave form is given by

P z , t 
t
Off axis case

h z ,  1 , t 

r0 r1 r2
c c c

p z ,  1 , t 
Off axis case
5 mm radius disk, z = 80 mm
Spherically focused aperture
- relevant to real imaging devices
Spherically focused aperture impulse response
Spherically focused aperture impulse responses
 Spherically focused
aperture pressure
distribution

Frequency = 3.75 MHz

a. f/2
b. f/2.4
c. f/3