Chapter 3

Integral Relations for A Control Volume

Introduction

Statics problems basically require only the density of the fluid and
knowledge of the position of the free surface, but most flow problems
require the analysis of an arbitrary state of variable fluid motion
defined by the geometry, the boundary conditions, and the laws of
mechanics.
This chapter and the next two chapters outline the three basic
approaches to the analysis of arbitrary flow problems:
1. Control volume, or large-scale, analysis (Chap. 3).
2. Differential, or small-scale, analysis (Chap. 4).
1 3. Experimental, or dimensional, analysis (Chap. 5).
 Fluid Flow analysis methods
 In analyzing fluid motion, we might take one of two paths:
1. Seeking to describe the detailed flow pattern at every point (x, y, z)
in the field . This method is called “differential analysis”
2. Working with a finite region, making a balance of flow in versus
flow out, and determining gross flow effects such as the force or
torque on a body or the total energy exchange called “control
volume” method.
 Control volume analysis is accurate for any flow distribution but is
often based on average or “one dimensional” property values at the
boundaries.
 The differential equation approach can be applied to any problem. Only a
few problems, such as straight pipe flow, yield to exact analytical
solutions.
 But the differential equations can be modeled numerically, and
computational fluid dynamics (CFD) can be used to give good estimates
for almost any geometry.
 The dimensional analysis applies to any problem, whether analytical,
numerical, or experimental. It is particularly useful to reduce the cost of
2
experimentation.
 Systems and Control Volumes
 A system is defined as a quantity of
matter or a region in space chosen for
study.
 The mass or region outside the system
is called the surroundings.
 The real or imaginary surface that
separates the system from its
surroundings is called the boundary.
 The boundary of a system can be fixed
or movable.

 Note that the boundary is the contact surface shared by both the
system and the surroundings. Mathematically speaking, the
boundary has zero thickness, and thus it can neither contain any
mass nor occupy any volume in space.
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 Systems and Control Volumes
 Systems may be considered to be
closed or open, depending on whether a
fixed mass or a fixed volume in space
is chosen for study.
 A closed system (also known as a
control mass) consists of a fixed
amount of mass, and no mass can cross
its boundary. That is, no mass can enter
or leave a closed system.
 But energy, in the form of heat or
work, can cross the boundary; and the
volume of a closed system does not
have to be fixed.
 If, as a special case, even energy is not
allowed to cross the boundary, that
system is called an isolated system.

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 Systems and Control Volumes
 An open system, or a control volume, as it is often called, is a properly
selected region in space.
 A control volume usually encloses a device that involves mass flow such
as a compressor, turbine, or nozzle. Flow through these devices is best
studied by selecting the region within the device as the control volume.
Both mass and energy can cross the boundary of a control volume.
 A large number of engineering problems involve mass flow in and out of
a system and, therefore, are modeled as control volumes.
 A water heater, a car radiator, a turbine, and a compressor all involve
mass flow and should be analyzed as control volumes (open systems)
instead of as control masses (closed systems).
 In general, any arbitrary region in space can be selected as a control
volume. There are no concrete rules for the selection of control volumes,
but the proper choice certainly makes the analysis much easier.

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 Systems and Control Volumes
 The boundaries of a control volume are called a control surface, and
they can be real or imaginary. In the case of a nozzle, the inner surface
of the nozzle forms the real part of the boundary, and the entrance and
exit areas form the imaginary part, since there are no physical surfaces
there.

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 Basic Physical Laws of Fluid Mechanics
 The laws of mechanics state what happens when there is an interaction
between the system and its surroundings.
 First, the system is a fixed quantity of mass, denoted by m. Thus the
mass of the system is conserved and does not change. This is a law of
mechanics and has a very simple mathematical form, called conservation
of mass:

 Second, if the surroundings exert a net force F on the system, Newton’s

second law states that the mass in the system will begin to accelerate

Newton’s second law is called the linear momentum relation.

Note that it is a vector law that implies the three scalar equations Fx
= max, Fy = may, and Fz = maz.

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 Basic Physical Laws of Fluid Mechanics
 Third, if the surroundings exert a net moment M about the center of
mass of the system, there will be a rotation effect

 where H = ∑(r xV) δm is the angular momentum of the system about its
center of mass. This is called the angular momentum relation.
Fourth, if heat δQ is added to the system or work δW is done by the
system, the system energy dE must change according to the energy
relation, or first law of thermodynamics:

Finally, the second law of thermodynamics relates entropy change dS to

heat added dQ and absolute temperature T:

This is valid for a system and can be written in control volume form,
but there are almost no practical applications in fluid mechanics
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 THE REYNOLDS TRANSPORT THEOREM
 In thermodynamics and solid
mechanics we often work with a
system (also called a closed
system), defined as a quantity of
matter of fixed identity.
 In fluid dynamics, it is more
common to work with a control
volume (also called an open
system), defined as a region in
space chosen for study.
 Reynolds transport theorem (RTT),
which provides the link between
the system and control volume
approaches
 Consider flow from left to right
through a diverging (expanding)
portion of a flow field as sketched
9
in Fig.
 Let B represent any extensive property (such as mass, energy, or
momentum), and let b = B/m represent the corresponding intensive property.

Subtracting the first equation from the second one and dividing by Dt gives

Taking the limit as Dt → 0, and using the definition of derivative, we get

where θ is the angle between the velocity vector and the outer normal
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  The properties within the control volume may vary with position, in general.
In such a case, the total amount of property B within the control volume
must be determined by integration:

The Reynolds transport theorem, also known as the system to control-

volume transformation for a fixed control volume

Conservation of Mass Principle

The conservation of mass principle for a control volume can be expressed as:
The net mass transfer to or from a control volume during a time interval Dt is
equal to the net change (increase or decrease) of the total mass within the
control volume during Dt. That is,

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 The general conservation of mass relation for a control volume can be
derived using the Reynolds transport theorem (RTT) by taking the
property B to be the mass m

That is, dmsys/dt = 0 because mass of the system is conserved

General formulaf for conservation of mass is

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  If the flow is steady, the total mass of fluid contained in the
control volume must be invariant with time.
 Therefore there must be an exact balance between the total rate of
flow into the control volume and that out of the control volume:
Total Mass Outflow = Total Mass Inflow
 which translates into the following mathematical relation

 Where M is the number of inlets, and N is the number of outlets.

 If the fluid is incompressible, e.g. water, with ρ being effectively
constant,

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  Example 1. A garden hose attached with a nozzle is used to
fill a 10-gal bucket. The inner diameter of the hose is 2 cm,
and it reduces to 0.8 cm at the nozzle exit. If it takes 50 s to
fill the bucket with water, determine
a) the volume and mass flow rates of water through the hose,
and b) the average velocity of water at the nozzle exit .

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 The Bernoulli Equation
 The Bernoulli equation is an approximate relation between pressure,
velocity, and elevation, and is valid in regions of steady,
incompressible flow where net frictional forces are negligible.
 Despite its simplicity, it has proven to be a very powerful tool in fluid
mechanics.
Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation
Assumptions
 Inviscid flow (ideal fluid, frictionless)
 Steady flow
 Along a streamline
 Constant density (incompressible flow)
 No shaft work or heat transfer
 The Bernoulli approximation is typically useful in flow regions outside
of boundary layers and wakes, where the fluid motion is governed by
the combined effects of pressure and gravity forces.

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 Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation
 A streamline (a line which follows the direction of the fluid velocity) is
chosen with the coordinates shown in Fig below.
 Around this line, a cylindrical element of fluid having the cross-sectional area
dA and length ds is considered.

 Let p be the pressure acting

on the lower face, and
pressure p + dp acts on the
upper face a distance ds
away.
 The gravitational force
acting on this element is its
weight, ρgdAds.

Applying Newton’s second in the s-direction on a particle moving

along a streamline gives

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 Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation
 The velocity may change with both position and time. In one-
dimensional flow it therefore becomes a function of distance and time,
v = v(s, t). The change in velocity dv over time dt may be written as

Summing forces in the direction of motion, the s-direction results

Where and
On substituting and dividing the equation by ρgdA, we can
obtain Euler's equation:

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• Note that Euler's equation is valid also for compressible flow.
 Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation
 Now if we further assume that the flow is incompressible so that the
density is constant, we may integrate Euler's equation to get

 The terms of in the equation represent energy per unit weight, and they
have the units of length (m) so they are commonly termed heads.
 A head corresponds to energy per unit weight of flow and has dimensions of
length.
 Piezo-metric head = pressure head + elevation head, which is the level
registered by a piezometer connected to that point in a pipeline.
 Total head = piezo-metric head + velocity head.
 It follows that for ideal steady flow the total energy head is constant along a
streamline, but the constant may differ in different streamlines .
Applying the Bernoulli equation to any two points on the same streamline, we
have

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 Application of Bernoulli’s equation
 Various problems on the one-dimensional
flow of an ideal fluid can be solved by
jointly using Bernoulli’s theorem and the
continuity equation.
 The Venturi, nozzle, and orifice-meters are
three similar types of devices for
measuring discharge in a pipe.
 The Venturi meter consists of a rapidly
converging section, which increases the
velocity of flow and hence reduces the
pressure.
 It then returns to the original dimensions of
the pipe by a gently diverging 'diffuser'
section.
 By measuring the pressure differences the
discharge can be calculated.

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  If we assume the velocity profiles are uniform at sections (1) and (2),
the continuity equation can be written as
 Where is the small flow area at section (2). Combination
of these two equations results in the following theoretical flowrate

 Thus for a given flow geometry and the flowrate can be

determined if the pressure difference, is measured.
Example 2. Air flows through a pipe at a rate of 200 L/s. The pipe consists of
two sections of diameters 20 cm and 10 cm with a smooth reducing section that
connects them. The pressure difference between the two pipe sections is measured
by a water manometer. Neglecting frictional effects, determine the differential
height of water between the two pipe sections. Take the air density to be 1.20
kg/m3.

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  Assumptions : 1.The flow through the pipe is steady, incompressible, and with
negligible friction (so that the Bernoulli equation is applicable). 2. The losses
in the reducing section are negligible. 3. The pressure difference across an air
column is negligible because of the low density of air, and thus the air column
in the manometer can be ignored.
 Analysis. We take points 1 and 2 along the centerline of the pipe over the two
tubes of the manometer. Noting that z1 = z2 (or, the elevation effects are
negligible for gases), the Bernoulli equation between points 1 and 2 gives

We let the differential height of the water manometer be h. Then the pressure
difference P2 – P1 can also be expressed as

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 Application of Bernoulli’s equation- The Pitot Tube
 The Pitot Tube is a device used for measuring the velocity of flow at
any point in a pipe or a channel.
 Principle: If the velocity at any point decreases, the pressure at that
point increases due to the conservation of the kinetic energy into
pressure energy. In simplest form, the Pitot tube consists of a glass tube,
bent at right angles.

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 Example 3. Velocity Measurement by a Pitot Tube
 A piezometer and a Pitot tube are tapped into a horizontal
water pipe, as shown in the Fig. , to measure static and
stagnation (static + dynamic) pressures. For the indicated
water column heights, determine the velocity at the center
of the pipe.

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Example 4: Water flows through the pipe contraction shown in Fig. For
the given 0.2-m difference in the manometer level, determine the flowrate
as a function of the diameter of the small pipe, D.

27
 Example 5: Water flows steadily through the variable area pipe shown in
the Fig. with negligible viscous effects. Determine the manometer
reading, H, if the flowrate is 0.5 m3/s and the density of the manometer
fluid is 600 kg/m3.

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 The Momentum Equation and its Application
 On applying Newton's second law of motion to the control volume

 Note that this equation

 follows from the principle of conservation of linear momentum:
resultant force on the control volume is balanced by the net rate of
momentum flux ) out through the control surface.
 is a vector equation. Components of the forces and the velocities
need to be considered.
Further consider a steady-flow situation
in which there is only one entrance
(section 1) and one exit (section 2)
across which uniform profiles can be
assumed. By continuity

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 Forces represents all forces acting on the control volume, including
Surface forces resulting from the surrounding acting on the control
volume:
oImpact force, which is usually the unknown to be found, on the
control surface in contact with a solid boundary
oPressure force on the control surface which cuts a flow inlet or
exit. Remember that the pressure force is always a compressive
force.
Body force that results from gravity
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 Application of the momentum Equation: Force on a
pipe nozzle
 A simple application of the momentum equation is to find the force on
the nozzle at the outlet of a pipe. Because the fluid is contracted at the
nozzle forces are induced in the nozzle. Anything holding the nozzle
(e.g. a fireman) must be strong enough to withstand these forces.
Steps in analysis:
 Draw a control volume
 Decide on a coordinate-axis system
 Calculate the total force, given by the rate of change of momentum
across the control volume
 Calculate the pressure force Fp
 Calculate the body force FB
 Calculate the resultant reaction force FR

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32
33
 Force due to a two-dimensional jet hitting an
inclined plane
 Consider a two-dimensional jet hitting a flat plate at an angle θ. For
simplicity gravity and friction are neglected from this analysis.
 We want to find the reaction force normal to the plate so we choose the
axis system such that it is normal to the plane.

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 Force due to a two-dimensional jet hitting an
inclined plane

35
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 Example 7: The water jet in Fig. shown strikes
normal to a fixed plate. Neglect gravity and
friction, and compute the force F in newtons
required to hold the plate fixed. Ans. 503 N

Example 8: A horizontal circular jet of air strikes a stationary

flat plate as indicated in the Fig. The jet velocity is 40 m/s and
the jet diameter is 30 mm. If the air velocity magnitude
remains constant as the air flows over the plate surface in the
directions shown, determine: (a) the magnitude of FA, the
anchoring force required to hold the plate stationary; (b) the
fraction of mass flow along the plate surface in each of the two
directions shown.

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 To determine the magnitude of FA we apply the component of the linear
momentum equation along the direction of FA

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 Flow past a pipe bend

 Consider the pipe bend shown above. We may first draw a free
body diagram for the control volume with the forces:

41
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 Example 9: A reducing elbow is used to deflect water flow at a rate of 30 kg/s in a
horizontal pipe upward by an angle θ = 45° from the flow direction while accelerating
it. The elbow discharges water into the atmosphere. The cross-sectional area of the
elbow is 150 cm2 at the inlet and 25 cm2 at the exit. The elevation difference between
the centers of the exit and the inlet is 40 cm. The mass of the elbow and the water in it is
50 kg. Determine the anchoring force needed to hold the elbow in place.

 Assumptions 1 The flow is steady,

frictionless, one-dimensional,
incompressible, and irrotational (so that
the Bernoulli equation is applicable). 2
The weight of the elbow and the water in
it is considered. 3 The water is
discharged to the atmosphere, and thus
the gage pressure at the outlet is zero.
The momentum-flux correction factor
for each inlet and outlet is given to be β
= 1.03.

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44
  Taking the center of the inlet cross section as the reference level
(z1 = 0) and noting that P2 = Patm, the Bernoulli equation for a
streamline going through the center of the reducing elbow is
expressed as

 The momentum equation for steady one-dimensional flow is

45
  We let the x- and z- components of the anchoring force of the elbow be F Rx
and FRz, and assume them to be in the positive directions. We also use gage
pressures to avoid dealing with the atmospheric pressure which acts on all
surfaces. Then the momentum equations along the x and z axes become

 Discussion . Note that the magnitude of the anchoring force is 1.18 kN, and its line of
action makes –39.7° from +x direction. Negative value for FRx indicates the assumed
direction is wrong.
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 The Energy Equation
 The first law of thermodynamics, also known as the conservation of
energy principle, states that energy can be neither created nor destroyed
during a process; it can only change forms.
 The change in the energy content of a system is equal to the difference
between the energy input and the energy output, and the conservation of
energy principle for any system can be expressed simply as

 The energy content of a fixed quantity of mass (a closed system) can be

changed by two mechanisms: heat transfer Q and work transfer W. Then
the conservation of energy for a fixed quantity of mass can be expressed
in rate form as

 Where is the net rate of heat transfer to the system

(negative, if from the system)

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 The Energy Equation
 is the net
power input to the system in all
forms (negative, if power
output)
 is the rate of change of
the total energy content of the
system.
(N.B: The overdot stands for
time rate)

For simple compressible systems, total energy consists of

internal, kinetic, and potential energies, and it is expressed
on a unit-mass basis as

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 Energy Transfer by Heat, Q
 The transfer of thermal energy from one system to another as a result of a
temperature difference is called heat transfer.
 A process during which there is no heat transfer is called an adiabatic
process.
 There are two ways a process can be adiabatic: Either the system is well
insulated so that only a negligible amount of heat can pass through the
system boundary, or both the system and the surroundings are at the same
temperature and therefore there is no driving force (temperature difference)
for heat transfer.
 An adiabatic process should not be confused with an isothermal process.
Even though there is no heat transfer during an adiabatic process, the
energy content and thus the temperature of a system can still be changed by
other means such as work transfer.

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 Energy Transfer by Work, W
 An energy interaction is work if it is associated with a force acting through a
distance.
 A rising piston, a rotating shaft, and an electric wire crossing the system boundary
are all associated with work interactions.
 The time rate of doing work is called power.
 Car engines and hydraulic, steam, and gas turbines produce work; compressors,
pumps, fans, and mixers consume work.
 Work-consuming devices transfer energy to the fluid, and thus increase the energy
of the fluid. A fan in a room, for example, mobilizes the air and increases its kinetic
energy.
 Total work can be expressed as

 Wshaft is the work transmitted by a rotating shaft

 Wpressure is the work done by the pressure forces on the control surface,
 Wviscous is the work done by the normal and shear components of viscous forces on the control
surface,
 Wother is the work done by other forces such as electric, magnetic, and surface tension, which
are insignificant for simple compressible systems
 Wviscous is usually very small relative to other terms. So it is not considered in control volume
50 analysis.
 Energy Analysis of Steady Flows
 For steady flows, the energy equation is given by

 It states that the net rate of energy transfer to a control volume by heat and
work transfers during steady flow is equal to the difference between the
rates of outgoing and incoming energy flows with mass.

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 Energy Analysis of Steady Flows
 Many practical problems involve just one inlet and one outlet.
The mass flow rate for such single-stream devices remains
constant, and the energy equation reduces to

 where subscripts 1 and 2 stand for inlet and outlet, respectively.

 on a unit-mass basis

 Using the definition of enthalpy and

rearranging, the steady-flow energy equation can also be
expressed as

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 Energy Analysis of Steady Flows
where u is the internal energy, P/ρ is the flow energy, V2/2 is
the kinetic energy, and gz is the potential energy of the fluid,
all per unit mass. These relations are valid for both
compressible and incompressible flows

Mechanical Energy Mechanical Energy

Input Output
 If the flow is ideal with no irreversibilities such as friction, the
total mechanical energy must be conserved. Thus u 2 - u1- qnet in
must be equal to zero.

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 Energy Analysis of Steady Flows

u2 - u1- qnet in represents the mechanical energy loss

 For single-phase fluids (a gas or a liquid), we have

where cv is the constant-volume specific heat.

 The steady-flow energy equation on a unit-mass basis can
be written conveniently as a mechanical energy balance
as

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 Energy Analysis of Steady Flows
Noting that

the mechanical energy balance can be written more

explicitly as

 where wpump is the mechanical work input (due to the presence

of a pump, fan, compressor, etc.) and wturbine is the mechanical
work output.
 Multiplying the above energy equation by the mass flow rate
gives

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 Energy Analysis of Steady Flows
Where
 is the shaft power input through the pump’s shaft,
 turbine is the shaft power output through the turbine’s
shaft, and
 , loss is the total mechanical power loss, which
consists of pump and turbine losses as well as the frictional
losses in the piping network.

 The energy equation can be expressed in its most common

form in terms of heads as

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 Energy Analysis of Steady Flows
 Where
is the useful head delivered to the fluid by the pump

is the extracted head removed from the fluid by the turbine.

is the irreversible head loss between 1 and

2 due to all components of the piping system other than the pump or
turbine.
 Note that the head loss h represents the
L
frictional losses associated with fluid flow in
piping, and it does not include the losses that
occur within the pump or turbine due to the
inefficiencies of these devices—these losses
are taken into account by

57
 Energy Analysis of Steady Flows
 The pump head is zero if the piping system does not involve a
pump, a fan, or a compressor, and the turbine head is zero if the
system does not involve a turbine.
 Also, the head loss hL can sometimes be ignored when the
frictional losses in the piping system are negligibly small
compared to the other terms
Special Case: Incompressible Flow with No Mechanical Work
Devices and Negligible Friction
 When piping losses are negligible, there is negligible dissipation
of mechanical energy into thermal energy, and thus
and

 which is the Bernoulli equation

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 Kinetic Energy Correction Factor, α
 the kinetic energy of a fluid stream obtained from V2/2 is not the same as
the actual kinetic energy of the fluid stream since the square of a sum is
not equal to the sum of the squares of its components
 This error can be corrected by replacing the kinetic energy terms V 2/2 in
the energy equation by αVavg2 /2, where α is the kinetic energy
correction factor.
 The correction factor is 2.0 for fully developed laminar pipe flow, and it
ranges between 1.04 and 1.11 for fully developed turbulent flow in a
round pipe.
 The kinetic energy correction factors are often ignored (i.e., α is set equal
to 1) in an elementary analysis since (1) most flows encountered in
practice are turbulent, for which the correction factor is near unity, and

 (2) the kinetic energy terms are often small relative to the other terms in the
energy equation, and multiplying them by a factor less than 2.0 does not
make much difference.
 When the kinetic energy correction factors are included, the energy

59
equations for steady incompressible flow become
 Example 1 : A steam turbine generator unit used to produce electricity.
Assume the steam enters a turbine with a velocity of 30 m/s and enthalpy,
h1, of 3348 kJ/kg .The steam leaves the turbine as a mixture of vapor and
liquid having a velocity of 60 m/s and an enthalpy of 2550 kJ/kg. The flow
through the turbine is adiabatic, and changes in elevation are negligible.
Determine the work output involved per unit mass of steam through-flow.

60
 Solution

61
 Example 2. The pump of a water distribution system is powered by a 15-
kW electric motor whose efficiency is 90 percent. The water flow rate
through the pump is 50 L/s. The diameters of the inlet and outlet pipes are
the same, and the elevation difference across the pump is negligible. If the
pressures at the inlet and outlet of the pump are measured to be 100 kPa
and 300 kPa (absolute), respectively, determine
a) the mechanical efficiency of the pump and
b) the temperature rise of water as it flows through the pump due
to the mechanical inefficiency.

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 Example 3. In a hydroelectric power plant,
100 m3/s of water flows from an elevation of
120 m to a turbine, where electric power is
generated. The total irreversible head loss in
the piping system from point 1 to point 2
(excluding the turbine unit) is determined to
be 35 m. If the overall efficiency of the
turbine–generator is 80 percent, estimate the
electric power output.
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 Example 4. Water is pumped from a lower reservoir to a higher reservoir by a
pump that provides 20 kW of useful mechanical power to the water. The free
surface of the upper reservoir is 45 m higher than the surface of the lower reservoir.
If the flow rate of water is measured to be 0.03 m 3/s, determine the irreversible head
loss of the system and the lost mechanical power during this process.

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