Theories

Nicolaus Copernicus
One of the renaissance men, particularly in the field of science, is

Nicolaus Copernicus. Knowledge about the nature of the universe
had been essentially unchanged since the great days of Ancient
Greece, some 1,500 years before Copernicus came on the scene
(Gribbin, 2003).
 Copernicus was strongly influenced by a book entitled
Epitome published in 1496 by a German Author, Johannes
Mueller. This book contains mueller’s observations of the
heavens and some commentary on earlier works especially
that of Ptolemy.
 Copernican Revolution, shift in the field of astronomy from a
geocentric understanding of the universe, centered around
Earth, to a heliocentric understanding, centered around the
Sun, as articulated by the Polish astronomer Nicolaus
Copernicus in the 16th century.
 This contribution of Copernicus to science is perhaps the most
revolutionary in the history of mankind, A paradigm shift for
the sciences. And it is that from that moment, the science
began to be based on observations and mathematical
measurements, and is not beliefs and simple theoretical
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affirmations.
Charles Darwin
Charles Darwin is famous for his theory of evolution. He changed
our concept of the world’s creation and evolution. Johnson(2012)
described Darwin as a genius who came from a line of
intellectually gifted and wealthy family.
 Darwin published his book The origin of Species in 1589- Darwin
proposed that species can change over time, that new species come
from pre-existing species, and that all species share a common
ancestor. In this model, each species has its own unique set of heritable
(genetic) differences from the common ancestor, which have
accumulated gradually over very long time periods.
 He wrote a best seller about his voyage and catalogued his many
specimens and concluded that the different types of creatures were
related to others closer by and not arbitrarily or randomly new or
distinct. He believed that species evolved from other related species
and that over time new species came to be because of constant
selection of those variations within a species who were born with
advantages which helped them survive and leave more offspring.
 The publication of Darwin’s Descent of Man (1871) that stimulated
scientific interest in the question of mental continuity between man
and other animals. Darwin’s young colleague, George Romanes,
compiled a systematic collection of stories and anecdotes about the
behavour of animals, upon which he built an elaborate theory of the
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evolution of intelligence.
Sigmund Freud
Freud is a famous figure in the field of psychology. Rosenfels (1980) also
described him as a towering literary figure and a very talented
communicator who did his share to raise the consciousness of the civilized
world in psychological matters. His contributions to knowledge can be seen
in many aspects of the human scene, including art, literature, philosophy,
politics, and psychotherapy.
 He formulated formed the essential fundamental version of this method. For

Freud, this method of psychoanalysis is a scientific way to study the human
mind and neurotic illness.
 Freud is not a traditional thinker. According to Weiner (2016), his method of
psychoanalysis was proven to be effective in understanding some
neurological conditions that were not understood by at that time. His method
was unorthodox-focusing on human sexuality and the evil nature of man.
 The fact remains that Freudian ideas and theories are still considered
nowadays as a great inspiration to examine human mind and behavior in a
more scientifically accepted way.
 Freudian theory postulates that adult personality is made up of three aspects:
(1) the id, operating on the pleasure principle generally within the
unconscious; (2) the ego, operating on the reality principle within the
conscious realm; and (3) the superego, operating on the morality principle at
all levels of consciousness. The interplay of these personality structures
generates anxiety that must be reduced through various defense mechanisms.
Presentation title These mechanisms act to obscure the true, anxiety-laden reasons for one's 3
behavior.

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Nicolaus Copernicus

One of the renaissance men, particularly in the field of science, is

 He formulated formed the essential fundamental version of this method. For

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