Lecture Presentation 1

1
EE-333
Electronics-1
Prof. Arda D. Yalçınkaya
Fall 2022
Lecture 1
2
Syllabus
November 9th 2022

3
Description & Objective

4
Outline
5
A note about the Book

editions
Sedra & Smith have many (8) editions;
• Essentially they’re all the same !

• We will follow
Semicondutor basics ⇢ Devices ⇢ Analog circuits ⇢ Systems
approach.
• You may have to navigate through the book for
different parts of this flow.
EE-333 PART-1 EE-232
Sedra 8th ed.

Order of the flow for
EE-232
E-333 PART-2 EE-232

6
EE-333 PART-3
EE-333 PART-3 cont.
editions
A note about the Book
EE-333 PART-4
EE-333 PART-4 cont.
7
Diodes
(Chapter 4 of Sedra 8th ed)
Introduction
 IN THIS CHAPTER WE WILL LEARN

 the characteristics of the ideal diode and how to analyze and
design circuits containing multiple ideal diodes together with
resistors and dc sources to realize useful and interesting
nonlinear function
 the details of the i-v characteristic of the junction diode (which
was derived in Chapter 3) and how to use it to analyze diode
circuits operating in the various bias regions: forward, reverse,
and breakdown
 a simple but effective model of the diode i-v characteristic in
the forward direction: the constant-voltage-drop model
Introduction
 a powerful technique for the application and modeling of the

diode (and in later chapters, transistors): dc-biasing the diode and
modeling its operation for small signals around the dc-operating
point by means of the small-signal model
 the use of a string of forward-biased diodes and of diodes
operating in the breakdown region (zener diodes), to provide
constant dc voltages (voltage regulators)
 application of the diode in the design of rectifier circuits, which
convert ac voltages to dc as needed for powering electronic
equipment
 a number of other practical and important applications
Physical Structure
(EE232)
 pn junction structure Figure: Simplified physical

 p-type semiconductor structure of the pn junction.
(Actual geometries are given in
 n-type semiconductor Appendix A.) As the pn junction
 metal contact for connection implements the junction diode, its
terminals are labeled anode and
cathode.
Oxford University Publishing

1) no voltage applied 1) negative voltage 1) positive voltage
applied applied
2) voltage differential
across depletion zone is 2) voltage differential 2) voltage differential
V0 across depletion zone across depletion zone
is V0 + VR is V0 - VF
3) ID = IS
 Figure to right shows pn-junction
3) ID < IS under three3)conditions:
ID > IS
 (a) open-circuit – where a barrier voltage V0 exists.
 (b) reverse bias – where a dc voltage VR is applied.
 (c) forward bias – where a dc voltage VF is applied.
Figure 3.11: The pn junction in:

(a) equilibrium; (b) reverse bias;
(c) forward bias.

steady-state
3.5.2: The minority carrier concentration on both sides
Current-Voltage
Relationship of the
of a pn-junction for which NA >> ND
Junction
“base” excess
concentration concentration

The Current-Voltage
Relationship of the
Junction
 Q: For forward-biased case,
how is diffusion current (ID)
defined?
 step #1: Take derivative of
minority carrier distribution
to define component of
diffusion current attributed
to flow of holes.
 step #2: Note that this value
is maximum at x = xn.
The Current-Voltage
Relationship of the
Junction
 Q: For forward-biased case, how is diffusion current (ID)

defined?
 A: Refer to (3.40). This is an important equation
which will be employed in future chapters.
The Current-Voltage
Relationship of the
Junction
 saturation current (IS) – is

the maximum reverse
current which will flow
through pn-junction.
 It is proportional to
cross-section of
junction (A).
 Typical value is 10-18A. Figure 3.13: The pn junction I–V
characteristic.
Current-Voltage
Characteristic of the
Ideal Diode
 ideal diode – most fundament nonlinear circuit element

 two terminal device
 circuit symbol shown to right
 operates in two modes
 on and off
Figure 1: Diode characteristics

Current-Voltage
Characteristic
 cathode – negative terminal, from which current

flows
 anode – positive terminal of diode, into which
current flows
 voltage-current (VI) behavior is:
 piecewise linear for rated values
 nonlinear beyond this range
4.1.1: Current-Voltage
Characteristic of the Ideal
Diode mode #2: reverse mode #1:
bias = open ckt. forward bias =
short ckt
 ideal diode: is most fundament nonlinear circuit element
device symboldevice with circuit symbol to right
 two terminal
with two nodes
 operates in two modes forward and reverse bias
figure 4.1.

Microelectronic Circuits by Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C. Smith (0195323033)
Current-Voltage
Characteristic
 External circuit should be designed to limit…

 current flow across conducting diode
 voltage across blocking diode
 Examples are shown to right…
Figure 2: The two modes of

operation of ideal diodes and the
use of an external circuit to limit
(a) the forward current and
(b) the reverse voltage.
A Simple Application – The Rectifier
 One fundamental application

of this piecewise linear
behavior is the rectifier.
 Q: What is a rectifier?
 A: Circuit which
converts AC waves in
to DC…ideally with no Figure 3: Rectifier Circuit
loss.

A Simple Application –
The Rectifier
 This circuit is composed of

diode and series resistor.
 Q: How does this circuit
operate?
 A: The diode blocks
reverse current flow,
preventing negative Figure 3: Rectifier Circuit
voltage across R.

The Rectifier
The Limiter
Another Application:
Diode Logic Gates
 Q: How may diodes be used to create logic gates?

 A: Examples of AND / OR gates are shown right.
Figure 5: Diode logic gates: (a) OR

gate; (b) AND gate (in a positive-
logic system).
OR GATE AND GATE
IF vA = 5V THEN diodeA will IF vA = 0V THEN diodeA will

conduct AND vY = vA = 5V conduct AND vY = vA = 0V
IF all diodes block

THEN vY = 5V +
5V
-
+
5V
-
IF any diode conducts
THEN
Microelectronic Circuits v
by Y =S.5V
Adel Sedra and Kenneth C. Smith (0195323033)
Example : To apply nodal / mesh
techniques, one must have
More Diodes knowledge of all component
impedances.
 Q: What difficulties are

associated with multi-diode
Figure 4.4: Circuit and Waveforms for Example 4.1.

circuits?
 A: Circuit cannot be
solved without knowledge
of diodes’ statuses. Yet,
statuses are dependent
on the solution.
IF vB < 0 THEN ZD1 = 0 ohms

ELSE ZD1 = open circuit
Example:
More Diodes
 Q: How does one solve these circuits?

 A: One must use the following steps…
 1) assume the status of all diodes
 2) solve via mesh / nodal analysis
 3) check for coherence
Example: If answer to either of these is no,
More Diodes then the solution is not physically
realizable.
 Q: How does one check for coherence?

 A: One must ask the following questions…
 1) Are calculated voltages across all “assumed conducting”
diodes forward-biased?
 2) Are the calculated currents through all “assumed
blocking” diodes zero?
 Q: What does one do, if the solution is not coherent?
 A: One must change one or more of these
assumptions and solve as well as check for coherence
again.
DC Diode Circuit
Terminal discontinuity caused by
Characteristics differences in scale
of Junction Diodes
 Most common implementation of a diode utilizes pn junction.

 I-V curve consists of three characteristic regions
 forward bias: v > 0
 reverse bias: v < 0
 breakdown: v << 0
The Forward-Bias Region
 The forward-bias
region of operation is
entered when v > 0.
 I-V relationship is
closely approximated
by equations to right.
This is a simplification
suitable for large v
The Forward-Bias Region
 Current Voltage Equation

may be reversed to yield
equation to the right ->
 This relationship applies
over as many as seven
decades of current.
The Forward-Bias
Region
 Q: What is the relative

effect of current flow (i)
on forward biasing
voltage (v)?
 A: Very small.
 10x change in i, effects
60mV change in v.
The Forward-Bias
Region
 cut-in voltage – is voltage,

below which, minimal current
flows
 approximately 0.5V
 fully conducting region – is
region in which Rdiode is
approximately equal 0
 between 0.6 and 0.8V
fully conducting region

The Reverse-Bias
Region
 The reverse-bias region of

operation is entered
when v < 0.
 I-V relationship, for
negative voltages with |v|
> VT (25mV), is closely
approximated by
equations to right.

The Reverse-Bias
Region
 A “real” diode exhibits reverse-bias current,

although small, much larger than IS .
 10-9 vs. 10-14Amps
 A large part of this reverse current is attributed to
leakage effects.
The Breakdown
Region
 The breakdown region of operation is entered

when v < VZK.
 Zener-Knee Voltage (VZK)
 This is normally non-destructive.
breakdown region
V = 10VT
V = -VZK
V = -VT

Modeling the Diode
Forward Characteristic
 The previous slides define a robust set of diode models.

 Upcoming slides, however, discuss simplified diode
models better suited for use in circuit analyses:
 exponential model
 constant voltage-drop model
 ideal diode model
 small-signal (linearization) model
The Exponential
Model
 exponential diode model

 most accurate
 most difficult to employ in circuit analysis
 due to nonlinear nature
The Exponential
Model
 Q: How does one solve

for ID in circuit to right?
 VDD = 5V
 R = 1kOhm Figure 6: A simple circuit used to
 ID = 1mA @ 0.7V illustrate the analysis of circuits
in which the diode is forward
 A: Two methods exist… conducting.
 graphical method
 iterative method
Graphical Analysis
Using Exponential
Model
 step #1: Plot the exponential relationship and the KVL relation on
single graph
 step #2: Find intersection of the two…
 load line and diode characteristic intersect at
operating point
Figure 7: Graphical analysis of

the circuit given above using the
exponential diode model.
Graphical Analysis
Using Exponential
Model
 Pro’s
 Intuitive
 b/c of visual nature
 Con’s
 Poor Precision
 Not Practical for Complex Analyses
 multiple lines required Figure 8: Graphical analysis of
the circuit given above using the
exponential diode model.

Iterative Analysis
Using Exponential
Method
 Pro’s
 High Precision
 Con’s
 Not Intuitive
 Not Practical for Complex Analyses
 10+ iterations may be required
Modeling the Diode
Forward
Characteristic
 Q: How can one analyze these diode-based circuits more

efficiently?
 A: Find a simpler model.
 One example is assume that voltage drop across the
diode is constant.
The Constant Voltage-
Drop Model
 The constant voltage-drop diode model assumes that the slope of

ID vs. VD is vertical @ 0.7V
 Q: How does example 4.4 solution change if CVDM is used?
 A: 4.262mA to 4.3mA
Figure 9: Development of the

diode constant-voltage-drop
model
Ideal
Diode Model
 The ideal diode model assumes that the slope of ID vs. VD is

vertical @ 0V
 Q: How does example 4.4 solution change if ideal model is used?
 A: 4.262mA to 5mA
4.1.1: Current-Voltage
Characteristic of the Ideal
Diode mode #2: reverse mode #1:
bias = open ckt. forward bias =
short ckt
 ideal diode: is most fundament nonlinear circuit element
device symboldevice with circuit symbol to right
 two terminal
with two nodes
 operates in two modes forward and reverse bias
figure 4.1.

When to
use these models?
 exponential
ideal diode model
model
 high
low voltages
voltages >> 0.7V
 very
less complex
complexcircuits
circuits
 cases
emphasis
where
on aaccuracy
difference
over
in practicality
voltage by 0.7V is negligible
 small-signal
constant voltage-drop
model mode:
 this
medium
is next…
voltages = 0.7V
 more complex circuits
 emphasis on practicality over accuracy
Small-Signal Model
 small-signal diode model

 Diode is modeled as variable resistor.
 Whose value is defined via linearization of
exponential model.
 Around bias point defined by constant voltage
drop model.
 VD(0) = 0.7V
Small-Signal Model
 Q: How is the small-signal diode model

defined?
 step #1: Consider the conceptual
circuit given;
 DC voltage (VD) is applied to
diode
 Upon VD, arbitrary time-varying
signal vd is super-imposed
Small-Signal Model
 DC only – upper-case w/ upper-case

subscript
 time-varying only – lower-case w/
lower-case subscript
 total instantaneous – lower-case w/
upper-case subscript
 DC + time-varying
Small-Signal Model
 step #2: Define DC

current.
 step #3: Define total
instantaneous voltage (vD)
as composed of VD and vd.
 step #4: Define total
instantaneous current (iD)
as function of vD.
Small-Signal Model
 step #5: Redefine total

current as function of
both VD and vd.
 step #6: Split this
exponential in two.
 step #7: Redefine total
instant current in terms of
DC component (ID) and
time-varying voltage (vd).
Small-Signal Model
 step #8: Apply power

series expansion.
 step #9: Because
vd/VT << 1, certain
terms may be
neglected.
Small-Signal Model
 small signal approximation

 Shown to right for exponential
diode model.
 total instant current (iD)
 small-signal current (id.)
 small-signal resistance (rd.)
 Valid for for vd < 5mV
amplitude (not peak to peak).
Small-Signal Model
 Q: How is small-signal resistance rd defined?

 A: From steady-state current (ID) and thermal voltage
(VT) as below.
 Note this approximation is only valid for small-
signal voltages vd < 5mV.
Small-Signal Model
 Consider the circuit shown in Figure

4.14(a) for the case in which R =
10kOhm.
 The power supply V+ has a dc value of
10V over which is super-imposed a 60Hz
sinusoid of 1V peak amplitude (known as
the supply ripple)
 Q: Calculate both amplitude of the
sine-wave signal observed across the
diode.
 A: vd.(peak) = 2.68mV
 Assume diode to have 0.7V drop at 1mA
current.
Use of Diode Forward Drop in
Voltage Regulation
 Q: What characteristic
is a voltage regulator?
of the diode facilitates voltage regulation?
 A: The
Circuit
approximately
whose voltage
constant
outputvoltage
remainsdropstable
across
in spite
it (0.7V).
of
changes in supply and load.
Diode-Based Voltage
Regulator
 Consider circuit shown in Figure. A string

of three diodes is used to provide a
constant voltage of 2.1V.
Operation in the Reverse
Breakdown Region –
Zener Diodes
 Under certain
circumstances, diodes
may be intentionally
used in the reverse
breakdown region.
 These are referred to
as Zener Diodes.
Zener Diode
Zener Voltage
Regulator
Rectifier Circuits
 One important application of

diode is the rectifier –
 Electrical device which
converts alternating
current (AC) to direct
current (DC)
 One important application of
rectifier is dc power supply.
Block diagram of a dc power
supply

step #1: increase / decrease rms magnitude of
AC wave via power transformer
step #2: convert full-wave AC to half-wave DC
(still time-varying and periodic)
step #3: employ low-pass filter to reduce wave
amplitude by > 90%
step #4: employ voltage regulator to eliminate
ripple
step #5: supply dc load
.
Block diagram of a dc power supply

The Half-Wave
Rectifier
 half-wave rectifier – utilizes only alternate half-cycles of the input

sinusoid
 Constant voltage drop diode model is employed.
Figure 10: (a) Half-wave rectifier (b) Transfer characteristic of the

rectifier circuit (c) Input and output waveforms
The Half-Wave
Rectifier
 current-handling capability – what is maximum

forward current diode is expected to conduct?
 peak inverse voltage (PIV) – what is maximum
reverse voltage it is expected to block w/o
breakdown?
The Half-Wave
Rectifier
 exponential model? It is possible to use the

diode exponential model in describing rectifier
operation; however, this requires too much work.
 small inputs? Regardless of the model employed,
one should note that the rectifier will not operate
properly when input voltage is small (< 1V).
 Those cases require a precision rectifier.
The Full-Wave
Rectifier
 Q: How does full-wave rectifier differ from half-wave?

 A: It utilizes both halves of the input
 One potential is shown to right.
Figure 11: Full-wave rectifier utilizing a

transformer with a center-tapped
secondary winding.
The key here is center-tapping of the transformer,
allowing “reversal” of certain currents…
Figure 12: full-wave rectifier utilizing a transformer with a center-

tapped secondary winding: (a) circuit; (b) transfer characteristic
assuming a constant-voltage-drop model for the diodes; (c) input
and
Microelectronic Circuits by Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C. output waveforms.
Smith (0195323033)
When instantaneous source voltage is positive, D1
conducts while D2 blocks…

when instantaneous source voltage is negative, D2
conducts while D1 blocks

The Full-Wave
Rectifier
 Q: What are most important observation(s) from

this operation?
 A: The direction of current flowing across load
never changes (both halves of AC wave are
rectified). The full-wave rectifier produces a
more “energetic” waveform than half-wave.
 PIV for full-wave = 2VS – VD
The Bridge Rectifier
 An alternative implementation of the full-wave

rectifier is bridge rectifier.
 Shown to right.
Figure 12: The bridge rectifier

circuit.
when instantaneous source voltage is positive, D1
and D2 conduct while D3 and D4 block

Figure 12: The bridge rectifier circuit.
when instantaneous source voltage is positive, D1
and D2 conduct while D3 and D4 block
Figure 13: The bridge rectifier circuit.

The Bridge Rectifier
(BR)
 Q: What is the main advantage of BR?

 A: No need for center-tapped transformer.
 Q: What is main disadvantage?
 A: Series connection of TWO diodes will reduce
output voltage.
 PIV = VS – VD
Super diode !!
 precision rectifier – is a device which facilitates

rectification of low-voltage input waveforms.
The Rectifier
with a Filter Capacitor
 Pulsating nature of rectifier output makes

unreliable dc supply.
 As such, a filter capacitor is employed to remove
ripple.
Figure 14: (a) A simple circuit used to illustrate the effect of a filter
capacitor. (b) input and output waveforms assuming an ideal diode.
The Rectifier
 step #1: source voltage is positive, diode is forward biased,

capacitor charges.
 step #2: source voltage is reverse, diode is reverse-biased
(blocking), capacitor cannot discharge.
 step #3: source voltage is positive, diode is forward biased,
capacitor charges (maintains voltage).
Figure 15 (a) A simple circuit used to illustrate the effect…

The Rectifier
 Q: Why is this example unrealistic?

 A: Because for any practical application, the
converter would supply a load (which in turn
provides a path for capacitor discharging).
The Rectifier
 Q: What happens
when load resistor is
placed in series with
capacitor?
 A: One must now
consider the
discharging of
capacitor across
load.
The Rectifier
 The textbook outlines

how Laplace Transform
may be used to define circuit state #1
behavior below.

circuit state #2
Q: What happens when
load resistor is placed in
series with capacitor?
 step #1: Analyze circuit

state #1.
 When diode is forward circuit state #1
biased and conducting.
 step #2: Input voltage (vI)
will be applied to output
(vO), minus 0.7V drop
across diode.
 step #3: Define output

voltage for state #1.
circuit state #1
 step #4: Analyze circuit

state #2.
 When diode is blocking
and capacitor is
discharging.
 step #5: Define KVL and
KCL for this circuit. circuit state #2
 vO = RiL
 iL = –iC
 step #6: Use combination of circuit and Laplace

Analysis to solve for vO(t) in terms of initial
condition and time…
The Rectifier
The Rectifier
 Q: What is VO(0)?
 A: Peak of vI, because the transition between state #1
and state #2 (aka. diode begins blocking)
approximately as vI drops below vC.
The Rectifier
 step #7: Define output

voltage for states #1 and
#2. circuit state #1

circuit state #2
Figure 17: Voltage and Current Waveforms in the Peak Rectifier
Circuit WITH RC >> T. The diode is assumed ideal.
A Couple of
Observations
 The diode conducts for a brief interval (Dt) near the peak of the
input sinusoid and supplies the capacitor with charge equal to that
lost during the much longer discharge interval. The latter is
approximately equal to T.
 Assuming an ideal diode, the diode conduction begins at time t1
(at which the input vI equals the exponentially decaying output
vO). Diode conduction stops at time t2 shortly after the peak of vI
(the exact value of t2 is determined by settling of ID).

A Couple of
Observations
 During the diode off-interval, the capacitor C discharges

through R causing an exponential decay in the output
voltage (vO). At the end of the discharge interval, which
lasts for almost the entire period T, voltage output is
defined as follows – vO(T) = Vpeak – Vr.
 When the ripple voltage (Vr) is small, the output (vO) is
almost constant and equal to the peak of the input (vI).
the average output voltage may be defined as below…

The Rectifier
 Q: How is ripple voltage (Vr) defined?

 step #1: Begin with transient
response of output during “off
interval.”
 step #2: Note T is discharge
interval.
 step #3: Simplify using
assumption that RC >> T.
 step #4: Solve for ripple voltage
Vr.
The Rectifier
 step #5: Put expression in

terms of frequency (f = 1/T).
 Observe that, as long as Vr
<< Vpeak, the capacitor
discharges as constant
current source (IL).
 Q: How is conduction
interval (Dt) defined?
 A: See following slides… expression to define
ripple voltage (Vr)
cos(0O)
Q: How is conduction
 step #1: Assume that

diode conduction stops
(very close to when) vI
approaches its peak.
 step #2: With this
assumption, one may
define expression to the
right.
 step #3: Solve for wDt.
The Rectifier
 Q: How is peak-to-peak
ripple (Vr) defined?
 A: given to the right
 Q: How is the conduction
 A: given to the right
Limiting and
Clamping Circuits
 Q: What is a limiter
circuit?
 A: One which limits
voltage output.
Figure 18: General transfer

characteristic for a limiter circuit
Limiting and
Clamping Circuits
 passive limiter circuit
 has linear range
 has nonlinear range
 K<1
 examples include
 single limiter operate in uni-polar
manner
 double limiter operate in bi-polar
manner
Limiting and
Clamping Circuits
 soft
Q: How
vs. hard
are limiter
limitercircuits applied?
 A: Signal processing, used to prevent
breakdown of transistors within various
devices.
Figure 19: Hard vs. Soft Limiting.

single limiters
employ one
diode
double limiters
employ two
diodes of
opposite polarity
linear range may
be controlled via
string of diodes
and dc sources
zener diodes may
be used to
implement soft
limiting
Figure 20: Variety of basic limiting circuits.
The Clamped Capacitor
or DC Restorer
 Q: What is a dc restorer?
 A: Circuit which removes the dc component of an
AC wave.
 Q: Why is this ability important?
 A: Average value of this output (w/ dc = 0) is
effective way to measure duty cycle
 Since vo is read from a grounded diode it cannot be
negative.
 When vI=-6V D turns on, charges the capacitor to vC=6V
 For this case vo=vI + vC= -6V + 6V = 0V
 When vI=4V D turns off, the capacitor stores its charge
(still vC=6V)
 For this case vo=vI + vC= 4V + 6V = 10V
4.6.3: The Voltage
Doubler
 Q: What is a voltage doubler?

 A: One which multiplies the amplitude of a wave or signal by
two.
Figure 21: Voltage doubler: (a) circuit;

(b) waveform of the voltage across D1.

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Prof. Arda D. Yalçınkaya

November 9th 2022

Description & Objective

A note about the Book

Sedra & Smith have many (8) editions;

• Essentially they’re all the same !

Sedra 8th ed.

E-333 PART-2 EE-232

 IN THIS CHAPTER WE WILL LEARN

 a powerful technique for the application and modeling of the

 pn junction structure Figure: Simplified physical

Oxford University Publishing

Figure 3.11: The pn junction in:

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 Q: For forward-biased case, how is diffusion current (ID)

 saturation current (IS) – is

 ideal diode – most fundament nonlinear circuit element

Figure 1: Diode characteristics

 cathode – negative terminal, from which current

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 External circuit should be designed to limit…

Figure 2: The two modes of

 One fundamental application

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 This circuit is composed of

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 Q: How may diodes be used to create logic gates?

Figure 5: Diode logic gates: (a) OR

IF vA = 5V THEN diodeA will IF vA = 0V THEN diodeA will

IF all diodes block

 Q: What difficulties are

Figure 4.4: Circuit and Waveforms for Example 4.1.

IF vB < 0 THEN ZD1 = 0 ohms

 Q: How does one solve these circuits?

 Q: How does one check for coherence?

 Most common implementation of a diode utilizes pn junction.

 Current Voltage Equation

 Q: What is the relative

 cut-in voltage – is voltage,

fully conducting region

 The reverse-bias region of

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 A “real” diode exhibits reverse-bias current,

 The breakdown region of operation is entered

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 The previous slides define a robust set of diode models.

 exponential diode model

 Q: How does one solve

Figure 7: Graphical analysis of

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 Q: How can one analyze these diode-based circuits more

 The constant voltage-drop diode model assumes that the slope of

Figure 9: Development of the

 The ideal diode model assumes that the slope of ID vs. VD is

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 small-signal diode model