Section 8-2: Cell Structure

 
Cell Organization
Eukaryotic cells are a complex and busy place, but if you look closely,
there are patterns that emerge. Each cell can be divided into two major
parts: the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
• The cytoplasm is the portion of the cell outside the nucleus. It is
made up of water and dissolved chemicals. Prokaryotic cells (that
do not have a nucleus) also contain cytoplasm.
• Within the cytoplasm are several structures that act as if they are
specialized organs. They are called organelles, which means “little
organs”.
 The Nucleus
In the same way that the main office controls a large factory, the nucleus is
the control center of the cell. The nucleus contains nearly all the cell’s DNA
and, with it, the coded instructions for making proteins and other important
molecules.
The nucleus is surrounded by a nuclear envelope.
• The nuclear envelope is dotted with thousands of nuclear pores, which
allow material to move into and out of the nucleus.
• A steady stream of proteins, RNA, and other molecules move through
the nuclear pores to and from the rest of the cell. This is just like
messages, instructions and blueprints moving into and out of a main
office.
Chromosomes, which carry the cell’s genetic
information are found in the nucleus. Most of the
time, chromosomes are spread out throughout the
nucleus in the form of a material called chromatin.
Inside the nucleus is a dense region called the
nucleolus that makes ribosomes.
 Organelles That Build Proteins
Living things are always working, building new molecules all the time,
especially proteins, which catalyze chemical reactions and make up
important structures in the cell. Since proteins carry out so many of the
essential functions in living things, a big part of the cell is devoted to their
production and distribution.

Ribosomes
Proteins are assembled in structures called ribosomes. Ribosomes are
small particles of RNA and protein found throughout the cytoplasm.
• They produce proteins by following DNA’s coded instructions that
come from the nucleus.
• Ribosomes can be “free” or “attached”.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Eukaryotic cells also contain an internal membrane system called the endoplasmic
reticulum (ER). The endoplasmic reticulum is where the lipids, including those needed
for the cell membrane are assembled, along with proteins and other materials that are
exported from the cell.
Rough ER is the portion of the endoplasmic reticulum that is involved in making
proteins. It gets its name because it has ribosomes on its surface.
• Newly made proteins leave these ribosomes and enter the rough ER, where they
may be chemically modified.
• Cells that produce large amounts of protein usually have large amounts of rough ER.
• Other proteins are made on “free” ribosomes, which are not attached to the ER.

Smooth ER is the portion of the endoplasmic reticulum that does not have ribosomes
attached to it.
• The smooth ER contains enzymes that can be used in making lipids and the
detoxification of drugs.
• Liver cells, which play a key role in detoxifying drugs, often contain large amounts
of smooth ER.
Golgi Apparatus
After proteins are produced in the rough ER, they move to an organelle
called the Golgi apparatus (sometimes called the Golgi complex).
• The Golgi apparatus’ job is to modify, sort, and package proteins and
other materials from the ER for storage in the cell or secretion outside
of the cell.
• The Golgi apparatus is similar to a customization shop, where the
finishing touches are put on the proteins before they are ready to leave
the “factory”.
• From the Golgi apparatus, proteins are “shipped” to their final
destinations throughout the cell or outside of the cell.
 Organelles that Store, Clean Up, and Support

Vacuoles
The storage area in a cell is called a vacuole. A
vacuole is a saclike structure that stores materials
such as water, salts, proteins, and carbohydrates.
• In many plant cells there is a single, large central
vacuole filled with liquid.
• Vacuoles are also found in some animals and in
single-celled organisms (where they are called
contractile vacuoles).
Lysosomes
Even the neatest, cleanest factory needs a cleanup crew, and in the cell,
that’s what lysosomes are. Lysosomes are small organelles filled with
enzymes.
• One function of lysosomes is to break down lipids, carbohydrates, and
proteins into small molecules that can be used by the rest of the cell.
• Lysosomes also break down organelles that are no longer functioning.
They are basically helping to remove the “junk” that might otherwise
accumulate and clutter up the cell.
• Biologists once thought that lysosomes were only found in animal cells,
but they have now been found in some plant cells as well.
The Cytoskeleton
A factory building is supported by steel or
cement beams and by columns that hold up
its wall and roof. Eukaryotic cells are given
their shape and internal organization by a
network of protein filaments known as the
cytoskeleton.
• The cytoskeleton helps the cell maintain
its shape and is also involved in
movement.
• Cilia and flagella are projections that
enable some cells to swim through liquid.

Microtubules are hollow structures made up of

proteins known as tubulins. In many cells they
play a critical role in maintaining cell shape. They
are also important in cell division.
• Animal cells contain a pair of structures called
centrioles. Centrioles are located near the
nucleus and help organize cell division. They
are not found in plant cells.
 Organelles That Capture and Release Energy
All living things require a source of energy. Most cells are powered by food
molecules that are built using energy that comes from the sun.
Chloroplasts
Plants cells contain organelles called chloroplasts.
• Chloroplasts are the equivalent of solar panels.
• They capture the energy from sunlight and convert it into chemical
energy stored in food through a process called photosynthesis.
Mitochondria
Nearly all eukaryotic cells contain
mitochondria. Mitochondria are
the powerhouse of the cell.
• They convert the chemical
energy stored in food into
compounds that are easier for
the cell to use.
• Mitochondria break down food
to produce energy for the cell in
a process called cellular
respiration.
 Cell Boundaries
All cells are surrounded by a thin, flexible barrier known as the cell
membrane. Many cells also produce a strong supporting layer around the
cell membrane called the cell wall.

Cell Walls
Cell walls are present in plants, algae, fungi, and many
prokaryotes.
• Cell walls are found outside the cell membrane and
most are porous enough to allow water, oxygen,
carbon dioxide, and certain other substances to pass
through easily.
• The main function of the cell wall is to provide support
and protection for the cell.
• Cell walls provide the strength needed for plants to
stand against the force of gravity.
• Plant cell walls are made of cellulose- a tough
carbohydrate fiber that is the main component in wood
and paper.
Cell Membranes
All cell membranes are made of a double-layered sheet called a lipid
bilayer. The lipid bilayer helps form a strong barrier between the cell and
its surroundings.
• The cell membrane controls what enters and exits the cell, and also
provides protection and support.
• Although many substances can pass through the membrane, some are
too large or too strongly charged to cross the lipid bilayer.
• Cell membranes are selectively permeable, meaning that some
substances can pass across them and others cannot. Selectively
permeable membranes are also called semipermeable membranes.
Embedded in the lipid bilayer of most cell membranes are protein
molecules. Carbohydrate molecules are attached to many of these
proteins.
• Some of the proteins form channels and pumps that help move material
across the cell membrane that cannot pass directly through the lipid
bilayer.
• Many of the carbohydrates act as identification tags, allowing individual
cells to identify one another, and help identify outsiders (this is one way
your body’s immune system can identify cells that may cause infections).