MINERAL

PROCESSING I

Edited by: Engr. Abigael L. Balbin

2nd Semester AY 2014-2015

1
Reference: Prof. Dr. Gülhan Özbayoğlu
INTRODUCTION
 Raw Materials of Mining
 Minerals
 Metals
 Ores
 Composition of the Earths Crust
 Oxygen+Si (74.6%)
 Oxygen, Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Na, Mg, K (over
99%)
 Industrially important metals Fe, Al, Mg
(over 2%) Other useful metals < 0.1 %
 Non-ferrous base metal (Cu) : 0.0055%
2
 Theforms of metal in the earth’s crust
and sea bed depend on:
 Their reactivity with their environment,
particularly with O2, S2, CO2

 Very few metals are found in native form.

 Most of them are found in compound form.

3
 Au and Pt  Native (metallic form)
 Ag, Cu, Hg  Native , Sulphides,
Chlorides, Carbonates
forms.
 Morereactive metals are found in the
form of compounds.
 e.i. Oxides and silicates of Al, Be;
 e.i. Oxides and sulphides of Fe

4
 Minerals: Natural inorganic substances
possessing definite chemical
compositions and atomic structures

IMPORTANT : If the minerals containing

the important metals were uniformly
distributed throughout the earth, they
would be so thinly dispersed that their
economic extraction would be
impossible.

5
 The occurrence of minerals in nature is
regulated by geological conditions. Due
to the action of :
Precipitation
Weathering
Alluvial movements
Crystallisation

mineral deposits are found in sufficient

concentrations to enable the metals to
be profitably recovered.
6
 Oreis a natural aggregation of
minerals from which a metallic or
non-metallic compound can be
recovered with profit.
 Ores can be classified according to
Nature of the valuable mineral
By the nature of their gangues
According to the use of the mineral

7
 Nature of the valuable mineral:
1. Native ores  metals in elementary form
2. Sulphide ores  metals as sulphides form
3. Oxide ores  Metals as oxide form
4. Complex ores
 By the nature of their gangues
1. Calcareous or basic  Lime rich
2. Siliceous or acidic  Silica rich
 According to the use of the mineral
1. Metallic ore
2. Non-metallic ore 8
 Mostores are mixtures of extractable
minerals and gangue (extraneous
rocky material)

 Nativemetals can be used directly.

Others have to be beneficiated
(concentrated) and treated
metallurgically.

9
GRADE (metal content)

 Grade (or assay) is the percentage of

element or compound of marketable end
product.
- Grade is a measure of the quality of the ore
or concentrate.
 For high grade ores: the valuable mineral assay
is expressed as % of metal.
e.g. for iron ore, 50% Fe
for copper ore, 3% Cu 10
 Forlow grade ores: valuable mineral
assay is expressed as ppm (or g/ton);
e.g. Gold ore : 5 g/ton Au, 5 ppm Au
 Some metals are sold in oxide form; thus
grade is expressed in terms of oxide
content.
e.g.%WO3(Tungsten),
%U3O8(Uranium), %B2O3(Borate),
%P2O5(Phosphate) ,%Cr2O3(Chromite)

11
 Non-metallic minerals: grade is expressed as
their mineral percentage.
% CaF2 , %BaSO4

 Diamond: grade is expressed as carat.

(1 carat= 0.2 g)

 Coal: grade is expressed as ash % or calorific

value(kcal/kg)

12
 IMPORTANT : The minimum metal grade
(assay) required for a deposit to qualify
as an ore varies from metal to metal and
from time to time.
e.g. Non-ferrous ores may contain as
little as 1% metal and often less.
Gold may be recovered profitably in
ores containing only 5 ppm.
Iron ores containing <15% Fe are
regarded as low grade.

13
 The deposit will be economic to work if:

Contained value/ton > (total processing

costs + losses + other costs)/t

14
 The factors which control the value and suitability
of a mineral deposit as sources of metal ore:
1. Location and size of the deposit (Topography,
availability of space, environmental impact)
2. Grade and texture (form and concentration of metal,
the nature of gangue, secondary values, uniformity of
the ore body, texture, association, degree of of
dissemination)
3. Mining cost (Alluvial mining: cheapest ; high tonnage
open pit and block caving underground: medium
cost ; underground vein type deposit : most
expensive.)
4. Financial aspects (required invesment, available
capital taxes, royalty payments)
5. Proximity to fuel, power and water supplies
6. Demand for and value of the metal (metal price)
15
 Value of a deposit
 Calculate the theoritical value of a deposit which
contains 1% Cu and 0.015% Mo.
- Price of copper metal : Php 980 / t
- Price of Mo metal :Php 15 / kg
 Value of 1 ton ore :
- 1 ton ore gives 10 kg Cu..........Php 9.80
- 1 ton ore gives 0.15 kg Mo.......Php 2.25
- Total value of 1 ton of ore .......Php 12.05

 The deposit will be economic to work , if ,

total processing costs + losses + other costs /t <
16
Php 12.05
  Asmined, run-of-mine (r.o.m.) ore consists
of valuable mineral and gangue.
 Mineralprocessing prepares the ore for
extraction of valuable metal.

 Mineral processing is a physical process for

separating the valuable minerals from the
gangue.

Mining →Mineral Processing→Metallurgy 17

 IMPORTANT: Mineral processing doesn’t
destroy the chemical and physical identity
of the mineral

 Mineral processing = ore dressing =

Benefication

18
OBJECTIVES OF MINERAL
PROCESSING
2 Fold:
1. Technical
2. Economical

3. Technical objective:
To bring the end (marketable)product or
concentrate into the technical conditions
required by the consumer 19
 Requirements (specifications):

Particle size
 Grade
 Mineral form
 Moisture content
 Impurities

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 Agglomeration techniques to increase the
particle size:
 Pelletizing
 Briquetting
 Sintering
e.g. Pelletizing plant for magnetite concentrate
pelletizing plant for chromite concentrate
Coal briquetting

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 Grades of Chromite
Metallurgical grade (High
chromium)
min 46% Cr2O3; Cr/Fe > 2/1
Chemical grade (High Iron)
40-46% Cr2O3; Cr/Fe=1.5/1 to 2/1
Refractory grade (High Aluminum)

22
 Barite grade
 In chemical manufacturing
Max 1% Fe2O3; max 1% SrSO4
Trace: F, min 94% BaSO4
 In glass manufacturing
Min 95% BaSO4; max 0.15% Fe2O3
max 2.5% SiO2; Particle size (-30+140
mesh)
 Drilling mud
sp.gr.≥ 4.2; free from soluble salts
size: 90-95% passing 325 mesh 23
 Iron ore
Classification of iron ores:

If Phosphor content ≥ 0.18% P high
phosphorous ore

If Manganese content ≥ 2% Mn
manganiferous ore

If Silisium content ≥ 18% SiO2 siliceous ore
24
 IMPORTANT: The smelter or other purchaser
protects himself from financial loss by
imposing penalty on all concentrate failing
to reach the agreed grade, so the mill
manager should ensure that this grade is
reached or exceeded.

 Ifmore than one valuable mineral is

present, the mineral dresser may be obliged
to separate them so that the purchaser can
handle them economically.

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 e.g. Complex sulphide ore
 By differential flotation, separate Cu,
Zn, Pb, Fe concentrates can be
produced.
 or Bulk concentrate for Imperial
Smelting Process
 Plasma technique (Sweedish) can be
used to recover complex Pb, Zn, Fe
dusts in oxide form (or can take material
after calcination or roasting of
sulphides)
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ECONOMICAL OBJECTIVES

To keep the loss of valuable

minerals as low as possible

To keep the cost of treatment as

low as possible

27
BENEFITS OF MINERAL
PROCESSING
1. Saving freight
2. Reduced losses of metal at the smelter
because of reduction in amount of
metal-bearing slag
3. Reduction in metal smelting costs(less
tonnage)
4. Reduction in capital cost of smelter
(simplification of the process due to the
separation of harmful elements)
5. Increase in workable amount of mineral
resources 28
 Treatment of 1 ton of copper ore by pyrometallurgical
process consumes 1500-2000 kWh of electricity.
 To upgrade a copper ore from 1% to 25% metal would use
20-50 kWh /ton energy (small energy in physical
methods).
 The reduction in wt of ore around 25 :1 by concentration
lowers smelter energy consumption to around 60-80 kWh
in relation to the wt of mined ore.
 In order to produce metals , the ore must be broken
down (destroyed ) by the action of
- heat ---pyrometallurgy
- solvent---hydrometallurgy
- electricity--- electrometallurgy
 All these methods consume large quantities of energy.
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Energy cost in copper production is
35% of the selling price of the metal.

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RELATED DEFINITIONS
 Liberation: release of the valuable minerals from the
associated gangue minerals
 Middling: the particles of ‘locked’ mineral and
gangue which needs further comminution for
liberation
 Degree of liberation: refers to the % of the mineral
occuring as free particles in the ore in relation to the
total content
 Optimum mesh of grind (m.o.g.): economic degree
of liberation
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 MINERAL PROCESSING
 Two fundamental operations in mineral
processing
 Liberation
 Concentration

Liberation is accomplished by comminution

(crushing and grinding)
Concentration methods are dependent on
physical and physico-chemical properties
of minerals. 32
FLOWSHEET
 Definition:
 Shows diagrammatically the sequence of
operations in the plant; may be in block
diagram or line flowsheet

R.O.M. ore

Block Flowsheet
Comminution

Concentration

Product
Handling
33
LINE FLOWSHEET
R.O.M. Ore

Crushers
+

Screens
-
Grinding
+

Classification
-
Concentration

Concentrate Tailing
34
MILLING CALCULATIONS

 In order to evaluate a given operation, it

is necessary to know recovery, ratio of
concentration, etc.
 These can be simply found by milling
calculations.
 The formulas are based on assays of
samples, and the results of calculations
are generally accurate.

35
 TWO PRODUCTS
 The simplest case is that in which 2-
products are produced from a given feed.

F: Weight of feed f: Assay of feed

C: Wt. of concentrate c: Assay of
concentrate
T: Weight of tailing t: Assay of tailing

F=C + T (Weight Balance)

Ff=Cc + Tt (Metal Balance)
36
 K: Ratio of concentration:
K=
 R:Recovery:

R=
 Enrichment Ratio=
E.R. =

37
Ff  Cc  Tt
Ft  Ct Tt Weight balance
multiplied by t
F ( f  t )  C (c  t )
F ct
K 
C f t
Cc c( f  t )
R  100   100
Ff f (c  t )
1 c
R   100
K f 38
 Problem:
Bougain mine in Papua New Guinea, the
world’s largest copper mine which has
130 000 tpd capacity, treats copper ore
containing 0.6% Cu to produce a copper
concentrate containing 25% Cu with 85%
recovery.
Calculate the amount of concentrate, the
grade of tailing and ratio of concentration.

39
Solution:

f  0.6%Cu
c  25%Cu
F  130000tpd
RCu  85%
t ?
K ?
C ?
40
 Cc
RCu   100
Ff
C  25
85   100
130000 x 0.6
C  2652tons / day

Ff  Cc  Tt
130000 x 0.6  2652 x 25  (130000  2652)t
t  0.0918%
F 130000
K    49
C 2652
41
Mass Balance
Ex. The feed to a flotation plant
assays 0.8% copper. The concentrate
produced assays 25% Cu, and the
tailings 0.15%Cu. Calculate the
recovery of the copper concentrate,
the ratio of concentration, and the
enrichment ratio (c/f).

42
The Use of Size Analysis in Mass
Balance
 In the circuit shown in the Fig, the rod mill is fed at
the rate of 20 t/h of dry solids (density 2,900
kg/m3). The cyclone is feed contains 35% solids by
weight, and size analyses on the rod mill discharge
and cyclone feed gave:
 Rod mill discharge: 26.9% +250um
 Ball mill discharge: 4.9% +250um
 Cyclone feed: 13.8% +250um
Calculate the volumetric flow rate of feed to the
cyclone. 43
Figure +
20t/h dry solids
2900kg/m3
Water

Rod Mill F = cyclone feed

20t/h dry solids 26.9%, +250um
B = ball mill discharge
Water
4.9%, +250um 13.8%, +250um R = rod mill discharge
Cyclone

Overflow
Underflow

Ball Mill To flotation

44
Solution
A material balance on the cyclone feed junction give:

𝐹 =20+ 𝐵 𝑜𝑟
𝐵= 𝐹 −20

A balance of the +250um material on the cyclone feed junction gives:

13.8 𝐹 =( 26.9 ) 20+ 4.9 𝐵𝑜𝑟

13.8 𝐹 =( 26.9 ) 20+ 4.9 ( 𝐹 −20 )

49.4 𝑡
𝐹= , 𝑇h𝑒𝑛
h
Volumetric flowrate of solids =

Volumetric flowrate of water =

Total Volumetric flowrate of feed in the cyclone = 108.7 m3/h 45

The use of dilution ratios in
Mass Balancing
Water plays a very important role in mineral
processing operations.
> used as a transportation medium for the
solids in the circuit
> also the medium in which most of the
mineral separation takes place.

46
The use of dilution ratios in
Mass Balancing
IF the weight of solids per unit time in the feed,
underflow, and overflow are F, U, and V,
respectively

Dilution ratio of feed slurry

f’ =
Dilution ratio of underflow , Dilution ratio of
overflow
u’ = v’ =
Water Balance:
47
Ff’ = Uu’ + Vv’
Ex. A cyclone is fed at the rate of
20t/h of dry solids. The cyclone feed
contains 30% solids, and the underflow
50% solids, and the overflow 15% solids
by weight. Calculate the tonnage of
solids per hour in the underflow.

48
Solution

Dilution ratio of feed slurry

f’ =
Dilution ratio of underflow , Dilution ratio of
overflow
u’ =
v’ =
A material balance on the cyclone gives:
20 = U + V
U = 14.3 t/h
49
3-PRODUCTS
 Example: The ore contains galena,
sphalerite and gangue

PRODUCTS TPD Assays

%Pb %Zn
Feed 600 6.2 8.2
Pb-conc. L 71.8 6.4
Zn-conc. Z 1.4 57.8
Tailing T 0.3 0.8
50
 L, Z, T are unknowns
 Solution can be found by using
determinant

F  L  Z  T ( weight  balance )
6.2 F  71.8 L  1.4 Z  0.3T
8.2 F  6.40 L  57.8Z  0.8T

1 1 1
6.2 1.4 0.3
8.2 57.8 0.8
L  0.0806t / tonneofore
1 1 1
71.8 1 .4 0 .3
6.4 57.8 0.8
51
 For 600 TPD operation=
0.0806 x 600=48.36 tpd Lead Conc.

Similarly;

1 1 1
71.8 6.2 0.3
6.4 8.2 0.8
Z  600  73.1 TPD Zinc Con.
1 1 1
71.8 1. 4 0.3
6.4 57.8 0.8

52
T  F  ( L  Z )  600  ( 48.36  73.1)
T  478.54 _ TPD  tailing
Cc 48.36 x57.8
RPb   100   100  93.4%
Ff 600 x 6.2
Cc 73.1x57.8
RZn   100   100  85.9%
Ff 600 x8.2
600
K Pb   12.4
48.36
600
K Zn   8.2
73.1 53
PRODUCT VALUATION
 Bougainville mine in Papua New Guinea , the
world’s largest copper mine which has 130
000 tpd capacity , treats a copper ore
containing 0.6 % Cu , 0.56 g/t Au and 1.44
g/t Ag , to produce 0.0204 tons of
concentrate containing 25 % Cu , 25 g/t of
Au and 70 g/t of Ag (with 85 % R). Calculate
the net value of the concentrate.
 Mining cost (open pit) = £ 1.25 = 99 375 TL/t
of ore
 Milling cost = £ 2.00 = 159 000 TL/t of ore
 Freight charge = £ 20.00 = 1 590 000 TL/t of
ore. 54
 Prices:

Copper = £ 980 / t= 77 910 000 TL/t

Au = £ 230 / troy ounce = 18 285 000
TL/tr.oz
Ag =£ 4.5 / troy ounce =357 750 TL/tr.oz
1 troy ounce = 31.1035 g
1 £ (1995 )= 79 500 TL

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ORE HANDLING

 Ore handling covers the processes of :

1. Transportation
2. Storage
3. Feeding
4. Washing

Which account for 30-60 of total

delivered price of raw materials.

67
 The physical state of ores in-situ varies from
friable, sandy material to monolithic deposits
(very hard)
So , methods of mining and handling of
excavated material vary widely.

68
 In underground operation,the ore which is
produced and initially crushed in underground is
easier to handle than that from an open-pit
mine. Their storage and feeding is also easier.
The operating cycle on an underground mine is
complex.
Drilling+ Blasting are often performed on one
shift
Hoisting of the broken ore to the surface during
the other two shifts.

Excavated ore Chutes Tramways

69

Skips Hoisted to the surface

In open-pit operation, the size of ore produced
tends to be about 1.5 m across. The ore is loaded
directly into the trucks (upto 200 tons capacity)
and is transported directly to the primary
crushers.
Storage of such ore is not practicable , due to the long-
ranged particle size which causes segregation during
storage : the fines working their way down through the
voids between the larger particles and extremely coarse
particles is sometimes difficult to start moving once it has
been stopped.
Sophisticated storage and feeding mechanisms are
often dispensed with , the trucks discharge their
loads directly into the mouth of the primary
crusher. 70
  The Removal of Harmful Materials
 The r.o.m ore entering the mill normally
contains:
1. Large pieces of iron and steel : Harmful to the
crusher
2. Wood : Choking or blocking of screens , flotation
cell ports , consume flotation reagents.
3. Clay and slimes : Hinder screening , filtration and
thickening , consume flotation reagents.

 All
these harmful materials must be removed at an
early stage in treatment.(Hand sorting from conveyor).
71
 Tramp Iron (from broken mine machinery ,
hammers and props)
Crushers can be protected from large pieces of
Tramp Iron and steel by Electromagnets
suspended over conveyor belts. Guard Magnets
can pick up these pieces travelling over the belt
, and can be swung away from the belt and
unloaded.
 Important !
1. Guard Magnets can not be used to remove tramp
iron from magnetic ores.
2. They can not remove non-ferrous metals or non-
magnetic steels from the ore.
72
 Metal detectors which measure the electrical
conductivity of the material travelling over the
belt are used. They can be fitted over or around
conveyor belts.
Electrical conductivity of ores < Metals
Metal detector gives an alarm when a non-
magnetic object passes on the belt. The belt
automatically stops and the object can be
removed.
For non- magnetic ores, in order to minimise
belt stoppage , metal detector and guard
magnet are used in combination.
73
 Wood
 Largepieces of wood which have been
flattened out by passage through a primary
crusher can be removed by passing the ore over
a vibrating scalping screen.
 Aperture of screen > maximum size of particle.
 Wood can be further removed from the pulp by
passing the grinding mill discharge through a
fine screen.
74
 Slime (Clay)
 Washing is to remove very fine material , or
slimes (-10 µm size ) from the surface of the
ore, of little or no value.
Washing is normally performed after primary
crushing (It should always precede secondary
crushing as slimes severely interfere with this
stage).

75
A Flowsheet of Typical Washing Plant

76
ORE TRANSPORTATION
 In a plant operating at 40 000 t / day capacity
28 tonnes of solid / min ,
75 m3 of water / min is transported.

 Operate the plant with:

-Minimum upward or horizontal movement,
-Maximum pulp density
-Maximum use of gravity

77
1. Dry ore is transported by :
- Chute
- Belt conveyor
- Bucket elevator

2. Hydraulic transportation
- Launders
- Pipelines

78
 Dryore can be moved through – CHUTES (open
troughs).Sharp turns are avoided.
-Clean Solid slides on 15° -25° steel – faced
slope.
-Most ores : 45° - 55° ( Difficult control for too
steep slope)

79
 BELT CONVEYORS

-Handling of loose bulk materials.

-Capacity : Up to 20 000 tph
-A single flight lengths exceed 5000 m with a
speed of up to 10 m / sec.
-Maximum slope :18-25 ( depends on the coeff.
of friction between belt and transported solid )

80
81
-The carrying capacity
of the belt is
increased by passing
it over troughing
idlers (3 or 5 in a set)

-They will be rubber

coated under loading
points to reduce the
wear and damage
from impact.
82
 Snubbed pulley : To
prevent slippage between
belt and drive pulley with a
single 180° turn over a
pulley.

 Tensioning device: To
adjust the belt for stretch ,
shrinkage and thus prevent
undue sag ( gravity
operated arrangements;
hydraulics and load-cell
controlled electrical
devices are used )
83
 Tominimize loading shock on the belt , the
fines are screened first on the belt and provide
a cushion for the larger pieces of solid.
 Thematerial ( heavy , lumpy )should never be
allowed to strike the belt vertically.

84
 GRAVITY BUCKET ELEVATORS (
vertical transportation):
 When there is space
limitation. It elevates the
material.
 Low handling rates. The
elevator consists of a
continuous line of buckets
attached to two endless roller
chains. The buckets are
pivoted so that they are
always in upward position.

85
 HYDRAULIC TRANSPORT (Pulp flow):

-LAUNDERS: Gently sloping troughs of U, V ,

ı_ı section. Solid is transported in suspension
, or by rolling or sliding.
Pulp may be made to flow by gravity.

 Slope of launder must increase with :

1. Particle size
2. Solid content in suspension
3. Specific gravity of solid
86
 The effect of depth of water :
1. If the particles are carried in suspension, use a deep launder ( because
the rate of solid transport is increased).
2. If the particles are carried by rolling , shallow launder is advantageous.

87
 -PIPELINES : Should be as straight as possible to prevent
abrasion at bends.
-Pulp is moved via centrifugal pumps.
! Oversize pipes Cause settling of solids (dangerous)

 The factors involved in pipeline design:

1. Solid / Liquid ratio
2. Average pulp density
3. Specific gravity of solid
4. Size distribution of solid
5. Particle shape
6. Viscosity of the fluid

- Centrifugal pumps : Used lifting up to 30 m normally and

100 m in extreme cases. 88
ORE STORAGE
 Operation of mining and miling are performed at
different rates
 Reservoir for material is necessary.
 Ore storage :
1- Stockpiles
2- Tanks ( surge tanks )
3- Bins ( wood , steel , concrete )
 The amount of storage depends on the
equipment of the plant , method of operation ,
duration and frequency of regular and
unexpected shut-downs.
89
-A 24-h supply of ore passed the coarse crushing
is kept in reserve ahead of the mill (hold a daily
tonnage ).
-In large capacity modern mills 2- shift
supply of ore
-Storage for sulphides Not suitable due to
oxidation
Wet ores Not suitable due
to freezing
-Storage has the advantages of allowing
blending of different ores. 90
 STOCKPILES : Used to store coarse ore of low value.

- In designing stockpiles : It is necessary to know:

1. Angle of repose of the ore
2. Volume occupied by the broken ore
3. Tonnage

91
 Conicalstockpiles
can be reclaimed
by a tunnel
running through
the center , with
one or more ,
feed openings
discharging via
feeders on to the
belt.

92
 Elongated
stockpile
(30 –35 % live
storage) = the
amount of
reclaimable
material

93
- BINS : Are used to keep the coarse crushed
ore for continuous feeding of crushed ore to the
grinding section .
-Made of wood , concrete or steel.
-Flat- bottomed bins Can not be emptied
completely Dead rock
-Dead rock however , provides a cushion to
protect the bottom from wear , but not suitable
for easily oxidised ore.

! Bins with sloping bottoms are better.

94
 PULP STORAGE :
1. Conditioning tank : For proving
sufficient time for chemical reactions
between solid and reagents used. These
tanks must be agitated continuously ( to
prevent settlement).
2. Surge tanks : Used to smooth out of
feed rate (flow rate ). Their content can
be agitated.
95
FEEDING
- Feeders are necessary to deliver a uniform stream of dry or moist ore . It
is a conveying operation in a short distance.

- Feeders : Apron , belt , chain , roller , revolving disc and vibrating

feeders.

96
- Chain Feeder : Used in
the primary crushing
section for smooth
control of bin discharge.
Heavy loops of chain
which are lying on the
ore at the outfall of the
bin at approximately the
angle of repose.
- When the loops of chain
move , the ore on rest
begins to slide.

97
 Elliptical Bar Feeder:
- To scalp the feed
(remove the fines ) and
to feed the coarse
particles to primary
crusher in one operation.
- Mineral is dumped
directly onto the bars
which rotate in the same
direction , all at the
same time , so that the
spacing remains
constant.

98
-Fines are screened on the belt , while the oversize is moved forward to
deliver to the crusher .
-Eliptical bar feeder is better suited to handling high clay or wet materials
, rather than hard , abrasive ores.

99
Apron Feeder :
- Most widely used for handling coarse ore, especially
jaw crusher feed ( heavy duty job )
- Consist of a series of high-C or manganese steel pans ,
bolted to heavy-duty chain (ruggedly constructed).

100
Reciprocating Feeder (Heavy-
duty ) :
- Stroke rate and amplitude controllable
- Require less driving power
- Provide more uniform feed.

101
Belt Feeder :
- It is a short-belt conveyor.
- Used for fine ore.

102
103
COMMINUTION

104
 Liberation of the valuable mineral from its associated
gangue is accomplished by comminution
 Comminution: Size reduction of particles until the
valuable mineral and gangue are produced as separate
particles.

 Comminution involves ;
1. Crushing ( compression or impact)
2. Grinding (attrition-abrasion and impact)

 Crushing reduces the r.o.m ore to a level that grinding

can be carried out (Crushing produces the feed of
grinding) 105
 Crushing : The ore is compressed or impact
against rigid surfaces.It is a dry process.
 Grinding : Abrasion and impact of ore by the
free motion of the media( rods, balls,
pebbles).It is a wet process.

106
PRINCIPLES OF COMMINUTION
 Most minerals are crystalline in nature in which
the atoms are regularly arranged in 3-
dimensional arrays.The physical and chemical
bonds are holding them together.Such inter
atomic bonds can be broken by tensile or
compressive loading.

 Distribution of load (stresses) are not uniform in

ore as it consists of variety of minerals.
107
Distribution of stresses depend upon;

1. Mechanical properties of minerals.

2. Presence of cracks or flaws in the
matrix.

108
 Minerals are assumed as brittle , but
crystals store energy without
breaking , and they release energy
when the stress is removed.( Elastic
Behaviour )
 When fracture occurs , some of the
stored energy is transformed into
free surface energy.( Formation of
new active surfaces)
109
IMPORTANT
 Brittle materials relieve the strain energy
by crack propagation. Tough materials
can relax strain energy by the mechanism
of plastic flow where the atoms or
molecules slide over each other by
distorting the shape of the material.
 Crack propagation can be inhibited by
meeting crystal boundaries.That is why
fine-grained rocks are usually tougher
than coarse-grained rocks.
110
 The energy required for comminution is reduced in the
presence of water and further reduced by chemical
additives. This is due to the lowering of the surface
energy and reduce the bond strength.
 Crushing : When an
irregular partical is
crushed,
coarse particles resulting
from tensile failure;
fines from compresive
failure near the points of
loading.
111
 Impact breaking : Due to the rapid
loading, the particle absorbs more
energy and tends to break rapidly, by
tensile failure. The products are often
very similar in size of shape.

 Attrition
(shear) : Produces more fines
due to the particle-particle interaction.

112
 COMMINUTION THEORY
 Comminution theory is concerned with :
- Relationship between energy input, and
- Particle size of product against feed
 IMPORTANT : Most of the energy input is
absorbed by the machine itself (it is lost by heat
and sound). Only a very small fraction of energy
is used for breakage. E.g. <1% of total energy.

 All
the comminution theories assume that the
material is brittle and no energy is absorbed.
113
 Rittinger’sTheory (Oldest Theory)
Energy consumed in the size reduction is
proportional to the area of new surface produced.

K: Constant
E: Energy input
D1: Initial particle size
D2: Final particle size

114
 Kick’s Theory
The work required is proportional to the
reduction in volume of the particles
concerned.

log R
E
log 2 115
 Bond’s theory
-Work input is proportional to the
New Crack Tip length produced.
-The crack length is unit volume is
inversely proportional to the square
root of the diameter of the particle.
-For particle size (in practical
calculations), the size in microns
which 80% passes is selected as
criteria.
116
  1 1 
WorkInput (kwh / sht )  W  10Wi   
 P F
P: Diameter in microns which 80% of the product
passes.
F: Size in microns which 80% of the feed passes
Wi= Work index:
- Comminution parameter =Resistance of
material to crushing and grinding ,
= kwh/sh.t required to reduce the material
from infinite size to 80% passing 100m.

117
SUMMARY

 Kick’s
Law is reasonably accurate above 1
cm diameter.

 Bond’sTheory is reasonable in the rod

and ball mill size.

 Rittinger’s
Law is applicable in the fine
grinding (10-1000m).

118
GRINDABILITY

Refers: How easy to crush and grind the

materials.

 Grindability data are used to evaluate

crushing and grinding efficiency.
 The most widely parameter to measure
ore grind is the Bond Work Index (Wi).

119
 Formost naturally occuring raw
materials, grindability change with
particle size (e.g. Minerals break easily
at the boundaries but individual grains
are tough, then grindability
(resistance) increases with the
fineness of grind).

 Consequently, work index values are

generally obtaing for some specified
grind size.
120
 Standard Bond Test is time consuming.
It is based on constant screening out of
undersize material in order to simulate
closed-circuit operation.
 Comparative Method: To determine the
grindability of an ore by using a
reference ore of known grindability.

121
 Procedure:Reference ore is ground for a certain
time and the power consumption recorded. An
identical weight of the unknown (tested) ore is
ground for a length of time such that the power
consumed is identical with that of the reference
ore .

 10 10   10 10 
Wr  Wt  Wir     Wit   
 Pr Fr   Pt Ft 
 10 10 
  
Wit  Wir  Pr Fr 
 10 10 
  
 Pt Ft 
122
 IMPORTANT : In comparative method , the
reference and test ores must ground to
about the same size distribution.( in order
to get reasonable Wi values)
 Asthe efficiency of grinding is varying with
the types of equipment, work indices
obtained from grindability test on different
sizes of several types of equipment, using
identical feed materials are used to
compare the efficiencies of the machines.

123
 IMPORTANT : The equipment with highest
work indices and the largest power
consumption has low efficiency.
- Jaw and Gyratory Crusher and Tumbling
Mills have highest Wi and power
consumption.
- Intermediate power consumers are Impact
Crushers and Vibration Mill
- Smallest energy consumer-Roll crusher
(apply steady , continuous compressive
stress on the materials)

124
HARDGROVE GRINDABILITY INDEX
DETERMINATION
 Procedure:

- 50 gram sample (-14+25 mesh )

- 60 revolution (total)=20 rev/min
- Grinding ring weight=64 lb.
HI  6,93  Wt  13
435
Wi 
HI : Hardgrove grindabili ty ( HI )
0,91

index
Wt : Weight of the ground product passing
200 mesh size
125
 Hardgrove Grindability of Various
Materials

MATERIAL HI MATERIAL HI
Antracite 21-50 Graphite(amorph) 73
Barite 116 Graphite(crystalline) 47
Bauxite 39-76 Hematite 96-35
Chromite(African) 35 Limestone 54-78
Chromite (Turkish) 62
Talc 67-130
Clay 97
Sulphur (raw) 104
Coal (bituminous) 37-105
Turkish çay seam Rutine 26
87
Turkish pirinç seam 102 Mica 126 7
PROBLEM
A magnetite ore exploited from an
open-pit mine shows a size
distribution so that 80% of it is
passing through 250 mm screen.
After crushing , 80% of the product
passes through 85mm screen.
What is the power required to
crush 230 tph ?
Wi (magnetite)=11.02 kwh/sh.t
127
F = 250 mm = 250 000 µm
P = 85 mm = 85 000 µm

 1 1 
W  10 x11 .02  
 85000 250000 
W  0.175kwh / sh.ton
1kw  1.341HP
0.175 x 230 x1.341  53.64 HP
128
 CRUSHERS
 It is the first stage of comminution.
 Dry operation ; performed in 2 or 3 stages

R.O.M ore Primary Crusher Secondary Cr

(<1.5m size) (Product 10-20 cm) (0.5-2 cm)

Tertiary Crusher (For extra hard ore)

IMPORTANT : If the ore tends to be slippery and

tough, the tertiary crushing stage may be
substituted by coarse grinding in rod mills. 129
CRUSHING PLANT FLOWSHEET
Run-of-mine Ore

Surge bin

Feeder

Grizzly
(-)
(+)
Primary Crusher

Washing Plant

Washed Ore Sands Slimes

Bins or Stockpile

(-)
Screens
(+)
Secondary Crusher

Screens
(-)
(+)
130
Tertiary Crusher Fine Ore bin
 Crushing may be open or closed circuit
 Open circuit Closed circuit
Feed Feed

Crusher Crusher

(+)
Product Screen
(-)

131
 Open-circuit crushing is often used in
intermediate crushing stages or when
the secondary crushing plant is
producing a rod mill feed.
 If the crusher is producing ball mill feed,
it is good practice to use closed-circuit
crushing.

132
 Rod Mill Feed
(+)
Feed
Primary Crusher Secondary Crusher
Screen
Product
 BallMill Feed
Feed
Primary Crusher Secondary Crusher
Screen (+)
Product (-)
133

(-)
 In most mills the crushing plant does not run
for 24 hour a day, as hoisting and transport
of ore is usually carried out on two-shifts
only, the other shift being used for drilling
and blasting. The crushing section must
therefore have a greater hourly capacity than
the rest of the plant which is run
continuously.
 Ore is always stored after the crusher to
ensure a continuous supply to the grinding
section.
 It is not practicable to store large quantities
of r.o.m. ore , as it is long ranged.
134
PRIMARY CRUSHERS
 Heavy duty machines
 Always operated in open-
circuit , with or without
heavy-duty scalping screens
(grizzly).
 Primary crushers
1. Jaw
2. Gyratory
135
JAW CRUSHERS
 Jaw crusher has two plates which open and shut like
animal jaws.
 The jaws are set at an acute angle to each other.One
jaw is pivoted so that it swings relative to other fixed
jaw.
 Material is alternately nippet and fall further into the
crushing chamber and then falls from the discharge
aperture.
 Classification of jaw crusher by the method of pivoting
the swing jaw
1. Blake
2. Dodge
3. Universal 136
 Blake Crusher
-Jaw is pivoted at the top
-Fixed receiving area
-Variable discharge opening

1. Double - toggle
2. Single – toggle

137
 Dodge Crusher
-Jaw is pivoted at the bottom
-Variable feed area
-Fixed discharge area (Restricted by lab. use where close
sizing is required)

138
139
 Universal Crusher
-Jaw is pivoted in an intermediate position.
-Variable discharge
-Variable receiving area.

140
 Blake-Double Toggle Jaw Crusher

141
 The oscillating movement of the swing
jaw is effected by vertical movement of
the pitman.
 Pitman moves up and down under the
influence of the eccentric.
 Back Toggle plate causes the pitman to
move sideways as it is pushed upward.
Motion is transferred to the front toggle
plate and this causes the swing jaw to
close on the fixed jaw.
142
 Since the swing jaw is pivoted at the
top , it moves minimum distance at the
entry point , and a maximum distance
at the delivery. The maximum distance
is called throw.
 The horizontal displacement of the
swing jaw is greatest at the bottom of
the cycle of the pitman. Set is
diminishing through when the angle
becomes less acute.
 The crushing force is least when the
angle between toggle is most acute
and strongest when angle is less acute.
143
 Alljaw crushers are rated according to their
receiving areas (width x gape)
 Maximum size jaw crusher has 1680 mm gape by
2130 mm width. This machine will handle ore
with maximum size of 1.22 m at a crushing rate
of 725 t/h with 203 mm set.

144
 Arrested (free crushing ) X Choked Crushing
 During crushing process , the rock piece is
nipped by the jaws. The fragments fall to a new
arrest point as the jaws move apart and are
then gripped and crushed again. The ore falls
until it is arrested.
 During each bite of the jaws the rock swells in
volume due to the creation of voids between
the particles.
 Since the ore is also falling into a gradually
reducing cross-sectional area of the crushing
chamber , choking of the crusher would soon
occur. 145
 In arrested crushing , the crushed material is
discharged at a rate sufficient to leave space
for material entering crusher. In arrested
crushing , crushing is by the jaws only.
 In choked crushing , the volume of material
arriving at a particular cross-section is greater
than that leaving.
 The particles break each other. This
interparticle comminution can lead to excessive
production of fines.
 If choking is severe , it can damage the crusher.
146
 The discharge material size is controlled by the
SET which can be adjusted by using toggle
plates of the required length.
 Since jaw crusher works on half-cycle only, due
to its alternate loading and release of stress , a
heavy FLYWHEEL is attached to the drive to
store the energy on the idling half and to
deliver it on the crushing half.

147
 Single Toggle Jaw Crusher

 Swing jaw is suspended on the eccentric shaft. More compact and light
design.

148
 Swing jaw not only moves towards the
fixed jaw, under the action of the
toggle plate , but also moves vertically
as the eccentric rotates. This elliptical
jaw motion assists in pushing rock
through the crushing chamber.
 Singletoggle machine has a somewhat
higher capacity than the double-toggle
machine with the same gape.

149
 Direct attachment of the swing jaw to
the eccentric imposes a high strain on
the drive shaft and so the maintenance
costs tend to be higher than double-
toggle.Rate of wear on the jaw plates
is also high.
 Double-toggle machines are 50% more
expensive than single-toggle of the
same size. Double-toggle machines are
used on tough , hard , abbrasive
materials.

150
 Jaw Crusher Construction

 Main frame : Cast iron and steel (which is made

in sections)
 Jaws : Cast steel with replaceable liners.
 Main frame sections are connected with tie-
bolts. Liners are bolted in sections on to the
jaws to reduce wear.
 Cheek plates are fitted to the sides of crushing
chamber to protect the main frame from wear.

151
 Jawplate : May be smooth (small size feed ) or
corrugated (coarse size feed ).
 Theangle between jaws < 26 (more angle
causes slippage )
 Curved plates are used to prevent choking near
the discharge of the crusher.
 Speed of jaw crusher : 100-350 rpm
 Throw : 1-7 cm ( Highest throw for tough ,
plastic material and lowest for hard , brittle
ore).

The greater the throw , less danger of choking

152
153
 To avoid damage when an uncrushable
material enters the chamber , crusher
is protected by a weak line of rivets
on one of the toggle plates or by an
automatic trip-out device.

154
GYRATORY CRUSHERS
 Consists a long spindle , carrying a
hard steel conical grinding element
(head) , seated in an eccentric sleeve.
 The spindle is suspended from a
spider. It rotates between 85-150 rpm.
It sweeps out a conical path within the
shell.(due to the gyratory action of
the eccentric.)
 Maximum movement of the head
occurs near the discharge (like in jaw
crusher). It overcomes the choking.
Figure
155
 Gyratory crusher is an arrested crusher
 Gyratory crusher can be regarded as an
infinitely large number of jaw crushers , each
of infinitely small width.It crushes on full
cycle , it has a much higher capacity than a jaw
crusher of the same gape.
 Above545 tph , economic advantages of the
jaw crusher over gyratory diminishes > 725 tph
gyratory is preferred.

156
 Maximum capacity of gyratory crusher with a
gape of 1830 mm which can crush ores with a
top size of 1370 mm is 5000 tph with 200 mm
set.Power consumption is around 750 kW.
 Theore can be fed directly from trucks (no
need to expensive feeders)

157
 Thecrushing shell is protected by manganese steel
or Ni-hard cast iron liners (concaves). In small
crusher , concave is one bolted to the shell. Large
machines use sectionalize concaves (staves) which
are wedge-shaped , bolted to the shell.
 Thehead is protected by a manganese steel mantle
which is fastened on the head by means of nuts.
 Gyratorycrusher is identified by the dimensions of
the feed opening and the mantle diameter.
(Capacity is roughly proportional to the diameter of
the head ).
158
 Uncrushable Material or Overloading

 Gyratory crushers have a hydraulic mounting.

 When overloading occurs , a valve is tripped
which release the fluid , thus dropping the
spindle and allowing the tramp material to pass
out between the head and the shell.
 Hydraulic mounting is also used to adjust the
set to compansate for wear on the concaves
and mantle.
159
SELECTION OF PRIMARY
CRUSHERS
 Gyratory
- Used for high capacity (provided that the
chamber can be kept full since the crusher
can work with the head buried in ore ). The
capacity is 3 times more than jaw crusher
with the same gape.
- Installation cost is lower (because it
occupies 2/3 the volume and 2/3 the weight
of the jaw of the same capacity).
- Better self-feeding capability.
- Suitable for hard , abrasive material (gives
more cubic particles). 160
 Jaw
- Used where gape is more important than capacity
(maximum diameter material).
- Capital and maintenance cost is slightly less.
- It can be sectionalised (easy to transport and
installation).
- Perform better on clayey , plastic material due to the
greater throw.

 If th-1 <161.7 (gape in metres)2 , use a jaw crusher.

161
162
163
164
SECONDARY CRUSHERS
 Much lighter than primary crushers.
 Feed : Usually < 15 cm size ( Product of primary
crusher) Tramp metal , wood , clays have already
been removed.
 Operate in dry condition.
 Produces a product which is suitable ( in size ) for
grinding.
 Secondary Crushers :
- Cone Crushers
- Rolls
- Hammer Mills
- Impact Crushers 165
CONE CRUSHERS
 Modified form of gyratory
 Difference : Shorter spindle of the cone crusher
is not suspended from a spider , but is
supported in a curved , universal bearing below
the head or cone.
- The crushing shell (bowl) flares outwards by
providing an increasing cross-sectional area
towards the discharge end (Excellent arrested
crusher)
- Head angle in much more than in the gyrator
crusher. 166
 Cone crusher is rated (identified) by the diameter of the
cone lining.
 Diameter : 559 mm to 3.1 m
 Capacity : Up to 1100 tph
 Product size : 19 mm
- South African Fe- ore plant : Use 3.1 m Symons Cone
Crushers with capacities 3000 tph each.

167
- The throw of cone crushers can be up to 5
times that of primary crushers ( Ore particles is
subjected to a series of hammer like blows
rather than being compressed).
- Operated at much higher speeds.
- Fast discharge and non-choking characteristics
allow a reduction ratio 7/1, even higher.
- Head is protected by a replaceable mantle.

168
169
SYMONS CONE CRUSHER

 Most widely used secondary crusher .

1. Standart (for normal secondary crushing

purposes)
2. Short – head (for tertiary duty)

- Difference : Shapes of their crushing

chambers.

170
 Standart Cone : Has
stepped liners which
allows a coarser feed
than in short-head.

 Product size : 0.5 – 6 cm

171
 Short – Head Cone : Has
steeper head angle than
standart which prevent
choking (although handling
more finer feed )
 Narrower feed opening
 Longer parallel section
 Product size : 0.3 – 2.0 cm
 Common Feature :
Parallel section between
liners at the discharge to
maintain a close control on
product size.

172
 Uncrushable material :
In cone crusher , the head is held down by
hydraulic mechanism. These allow the bowl to
yield if tramp iron enters the crushing chamber.
Head will be forced down , causing hydraulic oil
to flow into the accumulator.
 The SET on the crusher can be changed by
screwing the bowl up and down or by adjusting
the hydraulic setting. The springs allow the
bowl to rise.

173
GYRADISC CRUSHER
A special form of cone crusher used to produce
very fine material. It is different from cone
crusher having very short liners and very flat
angle for the lower liner.
 Crushing is by interparticle comminution by the
impact and attrition of a multilayered mass of
particles
 The angle of the lower liner is less than the
angle of repose of the ore so that when the
liner is at rest , the material does not slide.
174
 Gyradisc may be used in open-
circuit : Produce sand and gravel
(good cubic shape). Excellent
ball mill feed (-19 mm feed to 3
mm )
 Itmay also be used in closed-
circuit : To produce large
quantities of sand.

175
 ROLL CRUSHERS
 They are suitable to friable , sticky , frozen and
less abrasive feeds such as limestone, coal ,
chalk , gypsum , phosphate and soft iron ores.
( because jaw and gyratory have a tendency to
choke near the discharge when crushing friable
rock).
 Itconsists of 2 cyclinders which revolve towards
each other. The set is determined by shims which
cause the spring loaded roll to be held back from
the solidly mounted roll. The crushing process is
due to one of single pressure. 176
 Roll crushers are also manufactured with only
one or 3 , 4 , 6 cylinders (in case of one
cylinder, it is revolving towards a fixed plate).
 In modern rolls , each roll is driven by V-belts
from separate motors.

177
 DISADVANTAGES :
- For a reasonable reduction ratio , very large rolls are
required in relation to the size of the feed particles.
- They have the highest capital cost of all crushers.
 ADVANTAGES :
- Rolls are characterized by the production of small
proportion of fines than the other crushers (due to the
limited duration of material between rolls).
- Whenever gravity seperation is used as the principal
concentrating method, rolls remain the best device for
intermediate crushing.

178
 - D : Diameter of roll
- d : Diameter of particle
- s : Distance or set
between rolls
- n : Angle of nip
 Forces acting on the
particle
- N : Normal force
- T : Tangential force
- R : Resultant force
 If R is directed
downward, the particle
will be nipped and
crushed. 179
 Equating the vertical components of N and T :

n
Ny  N  sin
2
n
Ty  T  cos
2
When Ny  Ty
n n
N  sin  T  cos
2 2
n
sin
T 2 n
  tan   (coefficie nt of friction)
N cos n 2
2 180
 Coefficient
of friction () decreases with speed
which depends on angle of nip.
 For larger nip angle (coarse feed)--- Slower
peripheral speed.
 Forsmall nip angle (finer feed) --- Peripheral
speed is high.

181
 Let’s express the nip angle interms of D, d,
s:

D s

n 2 2 Ds
cos  
2 D d D  d

2 2

n Ds
cos 
2 Dd

182
 EXAMPLE
 If the coefficient of friction between rock and steel is 0.4
, what is the minimum diameter of roll to reduce 1.5
inches piece of rock to 0.5 inches ?
n
tan   0. 4
2
n
 2148'
2
n
cos  0.9285
2

n Ds D  0.5
cos    0.9285
2 Dd D  1.5

183

D  12.5 inches
 Maximum size of rock if  = 0.3

Roll Diameter Max. size of rock

9 inch 0.36 inch
12 inch 0.48 inch
18 inch 0.72 inch
30 inch 1.20 inch
42 inch 1.68 inch
48 inch 1.92 inch
54 inch 2.16 inch
184
 IMPORTANT : Unless very large diameter rolls
are used , the angle of nip limits the Rr of the
crusher.(Rr > 4 are rarely used)

 Smooth- surfaced rolls are usually used for fine

crushing , Coarse crushing is often performed in
rolls having corrugated surfaces.Their crushing
action is a combination of compression and
ripping (dig into the rock).Main application is in
the coarse crushing of soft or sticky iron ores ,
friable limestone or coal.Rolls of 1 m diameter
is being used to crush top size feed 400 mm.
185
 Wear on the rolls surfaces is very high
and Mn-steel tyre can be replaced when
worn.
 Thefeed should be spread uniformly over
the width.
 The
feed should be send in “starvation”
amount to prevent choking.

186
 The theoretical capacity of the rolls :

188.5 N D W  s ......kg/h

 N : Speed of rolls , (rpm)

D : Roll diameter , (m)
W : Roll width , (m)
 : Specific gravity of feed , (kg/m3)
s : Distance between the rolls , (m)
 Actual capacity is  25 % of the theoretical.
187
IMPACT CRUSHERS
 Comminution is by impact rather than compression. Sharp blows due to
moving beaters are applied at high speed to free falling rock.
 Internal stresses created in the particles cause them to shatter.These
forces are increased by putting a breaker plate (Internal stresses can
cause immediate fracture with no residual stresses while breakage by
compression cause later cracking).

188
 Stress – free fracturing is particularly valuable
in stone used for brick – making, building and
road making. (wider use in quarrying industry)
 The feed entering from the top is immediately
struck by the ribs , rigidly mounted on the fast
turning rotor-core , and is hurled more or less
tangentially against the steel plates of the
casing (breaker plates)
 Breakage of particles occurs preferably at
inherent zones of weakness , therefore ,
elective crushing occurs. They are suitable to
plastic and pack ores. 189
 Large impact crushers will be reduce 1.5 m top
size r.o.m ore to 20 cm at capacities of around
1500 tph , although crushers with capacities of
3000 tph have been manufactured.
 Since they depend on high velocities , the wear
is greater than for jaw and gyratory crusher.
 Impact crushers should not be used on ores
containing over 15 % silica.
 They are good choice when high Rr is required
(can be as high as 40:1) and high percentage of
fines, and the ore is relatively non-abrasive.
190
HAMMER MILL
 Swing hammers are pivoted so that they exert
less force than they would if rigidly attached
(impact crusher) so they tend to be used for
crushing soft material. The swing hammers
align radially by centrifugal force.
 The exit from the mill is perforated , so that
material which is not broken to the required
size is retained for further impacting.
 Sizereduction is due to the severity of the
impact with hammers and to the subsequent
impact with the casing or grid. 191
 Since the particles are given very high
velocities, much of the size reduction is by
attrition , and this leads production of higher
proportion of fines
 The speed of rotor varies between 500 – 3000
rpm.
 In case of a moisture content >12 % H2O, the
crusher may be equipped with heated breaker
plates.
 The hammers are reversible and replacable to
even out wear.
192
ROTARY COAL BREAKERS
 Where large tonnages of coal are treated ,
rotary breaker is often used.
 It is similar to the trommel screen , consisting
of a cylinder of 1.8 – 3.6 m in diameter and the
length 2.5 times the diameter , revolving speed
of about 12-18 rpm.
 The cylinder has a perforated surface. The size
of the perforations being the size to which the
coal is to be broken.
 Capacity of the breaker is up to 1500 tph in the
larger machines.
193
 The machine utilises differential breakage, the
coal being much friable than the associated
stones and shales.
 The small particles of coal and shale quickly fall
through the holes , while the larger lumps are
retained , and are lifted by longitudinal lifters
within the cylinder and fall to the bottom of the
cylinder , breaking by their own impact and pass
through the holes. Large pieces of shale and
stone do not break as easily and discharged from
the end of the breaker (thus cleans the coal to a
certain degree).
 Although the rotary breaker is an expensive
piece of equipment , maintenance costs are
relatively low and it produces positive control of
the top size of product.
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
 PARTICLE SIZE ANALYSIS
 The purpose of size analysis in the lab. :
1. To determine the quality of grinding ,
2. To establish the degree of liberation of valuable mineral from the
gangue at various particle sizes
3. To determine the optimum size of the feed for maximum efficiency
4. To determine the size range at which any losses are occuring in the
plant

201
 Definition of size :
- For spherical particle : The size is defined by the diameter
- For a cube : Size is defined as the length along one edge
- For irregular particles : Equivalent diameter
 Equivalent diameter refers to the diameter of a sphere that would behave
in the same manner as the particle when submitted to some specified
operation.

202
Several equivalent diameter
:

- Stokes’ diameter
- Projected area diameter
- Sieve aperture diameter

203
 Shape Terms :
- Acicular : Needle – shaped
- Angular : Sharp – edged
- Crystalline : Geometrical shape
- Dendritic : Branched crystalline shape
- Fibrous : Thread like
- Flaky : Plate like
- Granular : Equidimensional irregular
- Irregular : Lacking any symmetry
- Modular : Rounded , irregular shape204
 Common Methods of Size Analysis

Method Appr. Useful range (m)

Test sieving 100 000 – 10
Elutriation 40 - 5
Optical Microscopy 50 - 0.25
Sedimentation 40 - 1
(gravity)
Sedimentation 5 - 0.05
(centrifugal)
Electron microscopy 1 - 0.05
205
TEST SIEVING

 Most widely used method of particle size analysis.

 Standart test sieving can be accomplished down to 37 m (400 mesh).
 Particle finer than this size are often referred to as being Sub Sieve
Range , although modern sieving allows sizing to be carried out down to
about 5 m.

206
 Size Analysis Procedure

1. Put a known amount of material on a

coarsest screen which is set in a nest (stack)
with the coarsest sieve on the top and finest
at the bottom. (Pan is placed below the
bottom sieve)
2. Vibrates the nest in a sieve shaker for a
determined time.
3. Take apart the nest and weigh the amount of
material retained on each sieve.
4. Tabulate the results in cum. wt % retained
and passing form. 207
 Sieving can be carried out in dry and wet
condition. Near –Size (near mesh) materials
cause blinding which reduce the effective
area of the sieving medium . It is most serious
with very small aperture size.
 Sieving takes place into 2- stages:

1. Elimination of particles smaller than the

screen apertures (rapid).
2. Separation of the near – size material.

 The effectiveness of a sieving test depends on

the amount of material put on the sieve.
208
 TEST SIEVES
 Standard test sives have square aperture. A
variety of sieve aperture sizes depend on the
thickness of wire used . Most popular sieves
used :

1. German Standard , DIN 4188

2. ASTM Standard
3. American Tyler Series
4. French (AFNOR) Series
5. British Standard , BS Series 209
 Until recently , woven wire sieves were designated by
a mesh number which referred to the number of wires
per inch , which is the same as the number of openings
per inch.
 After 1962 , sieves are designated by aperture size
which gives the user directly the information he needs.
1. Woven – wire screens -- Square aperture
Aperture > 75 µm -------- Plain woven
Aperture < 63 µm ------------------- Twilled
2. Aperture size > 1mm --- Perforated plate sieves.
3. Aperture sizes < 37 µm--- Micromesh sieves (5-150 µm)
Micromesh sieves are made by electroforming nickel in
square or circular mesh. Another type is Micro- Plate
Sieve which is fabricated by electroetching a nickel
plate with apertures in the form of truncated cones
with a small circle uppermost.
210
211
 Tyler Screen :
 Apertures of consecutive sieves follow a constant
relationship to each other. ( 2  1.414)
For much closer size , it is based on fourth root of 2
ratio
( 4 2  1.189)
(Geometric progression). Starting point
is 200 mesh screen with 74 m aperture size.
i.e. One coarser size sieve above 200 mesh is 150 mesh.

 The
74aperture
 2  104size
.6 ismcalculated

 74
One smaller size screen is 270 mesh
 53 m 212

2
 IMPORTANT : The sieve range should be chosen so that no more than
about 5 % of the sample is retained on the coarsest sieve , or passes the
finest sieve.
 The geometrical progression in metric system (e.i. DIN ) , screens follow a
tenth root of 10

(10 10  1.259)
213
 Presentation of Results of Sieving Test :

Mesh mm Weight Wt % Cum. Wt % Cum. Wt %

(gr) retained passing

+28 0.595 10.00 2.00 2.00 98.00

-28+35 0.417 163.00 32.60 34.60 65.40

-35+48 0.295 72.00 14.40 49.00 51.00
-48+65 0.208 54.00 10.80 59.80 40.20
-65+100 0.147 44.00 8.80 68.60 31.40
-100+150 0.104 31.00 6.20 74.80 25.20
-150+200 0.074 26.00 5.20 80.00 20.00
-200 0.074 100.00 20.00 100.00
Total 500.00 100.00
214
 Representation of screen analysis results
1. Direct plot (Fractional curves )
2. Cumulative plot
 Direct Plot :
Reflects the relative frequency of occurrence of the various
sizes present in the material. It shows the mode of the
distribution , i.e. the most commonly occuring size.

215
 Cumulative Plot :
Cumulative curves of retained or passing are most
valuable and generally used. They have two
advantages:
1. They permit direct comparison of distributions
in products over any range of limiting sizes.
2. By degree of concavity or comparison of
slopes at different points , they yield a
graphical measure of distribution.
 Cumulative plots can be drawn on arithmetic graph
paper or semi-logarithmic or logarithmic
paper.Arithmetic graph has disadvantage that points
in the region of the finer sizes tend to become
congested. A semi-logarithmic plot avoids this. Most
216

log-log papers leads to a straight line.

 Represantation of Particle Size Distribution
Curve by Means of Equations.
(Mathematical Expression )
 No exact mathematical formulation of size
distribution has been developed so far even for
uniform material.
 The two common methods which are often
applied to comminution studies where non-
uniform size distributions are obtained are :
1. Gates – Gaudin – Schuhmann
2. Rosin – Rammler
 Both methods result the equations to a linear
scale which is expanded in some regions or
contracted in others. 217
Gates – Gaudin – Schuhmann
 Itrepresents commonly observed average
relationship existing in the fine size range. It is
expressed as follow
Y : Cum. Wt passing on a
screen aperture of ( d )
m
d K : A size modulus constant
Y  100    which is the value of ( d )
K when Y=100 representing
the theoretical upper
Cum. Undersize data are limiting size of products
ploted against sieve (intercept of the line to
aperture on log-log x-axis )
paper. m : Modulus constant (slope of
218

the curve)
 Gates – Gaudin – Schuhman leads a straight line,
over a wide size range , particulary over the
finer sizes.
log Y  log 100  m. log d - m.log K
 y  mx  C
 Ploting on log-log scale considerably expands
the region below 50 % in the cum. undersize
curve , especially that below 25 %. It does ,
however , severely contract the region above
50% , and especially above 75% , which is the
219

major disadvantage of the method.

Rosin – Rammler Method
 Itis often used on materials ground in ball
mills.( It is also well applicable to the products
of coal )
P : Cum. Wt passing
100 - P  100 exp bd   n on a screen
aperture of (d)
b,n : Constant
d : Particle size

100 - P  Y  Cum. wt retained

220
 The equation can be rewritten as :

 100 
log ln    log b  n.log d
 A plot of  100versus
- Pd on log-log
paper gives a straight line of slope n.
 100 
ln  
 100 - P 

221
 Rosin – Rammler plot expands the regions below
25% and above 75% cum. undersize and it
contracts the 30 – 60 % region , however, this
contraction has no adverse effects.

222
Sub-sieve analysis techniques
 Sub-sieve size = -40 µm
 The most widely used procedures :
1. Sedimentation
2. Elutriation
3. Microscopy
 Approximate conversion factors for combining
the size distributions determined by different
methods :
- Sieve size to Stokes’ diameter- Multiply with
0.94
- Sieve size to Projected diameter- Multiply
223

with 1.40
 Sedimentation Method
(Beaker Decantation)
 Based on the measurement of
the rate of settling of the
particles uniformly dispersed
in a fluid.
 In both sedimentation and
elutriation
d  g   s   f 
2
techniques ,settling rate of
particles is determined by v
Stokes’ Equation. 18
v= terminal velocity
d= particle size
g=gravitational acceleration
µ= viscosity
s , f = sp. gr. of solid and
224
fluid
A syphon-tube is immersed into the water to a
depth of (h) below the water-level (90 % L).
 The terminal velocity (v) is calculated from
Stokes’ law for various sizes of particles in the
material , say 30 µm , 20 µm , 10 µm. The time
required for the various sizes of particles to
settle from the water level to the bottom of the
syphon tube , distance h , is calculated .(t=h/v)
 Thepulp is gently stirred to disperse the particle
and it is then allowed to stand for the calculated
time.
225
 Thewater above the end of the tube is
syphoned off and all the particles in this water
are assumed to be smaller than e.i. 10 µm.
 However , a fraction of the -10 µm material
which commenced settling from various levels
below the water level , will be present in the
material below the syphon level. In order to
recover these particles the pulp must be
diluted again , and the procedure is repeated
at least five times. The method is simple , but
tedious.
226
 e.i. for 25 µm size quartz , v= 0.056 cm/sec
t= 3.5 min ( to settle 12 cm )
5 separate tests require 18 minutes
For 5 µm quartz , v= 0.0022 cm/sec
t= 90 min (12 cm depth)
For 5 tests  7.5 hours
 Total analysis may take 8 hours.
 A much quicker method of sedimentation analysis is the Andreasan Pipette
Technique.

227
Elutriation Techniques
 Elutriation is the sizing of particles by means of an
upward current of fluid. It is the reverse of gravity
sedimentation , and Stokes’ law applies. Figure...
 All elutriations consist of one or more sorting
columns in which the fluid is rising at a constant
velocity. Feed particles will be separated into 2
fractions.( Particle having a terminal velocity< the
velocity of fluid will report to the overflow , while
other having greater velocity will sink to the
underflow)
 Elutriation appears more attractive than
decantation. Separation times can be considerably
decreased by utilization of centrifugal forces (e.i.
228

Warman cyclosizer)
 To overcome the long separating times for finer
particles ( and to overcome the agglomeration
of fines) centrifugal forces are utilized (Warman
Cyclosizer). It is used in the size range 8 – 50
µm.
 Cyclosizer unit consists of 5 cyclones , arranged
in series such that the overflow of one unit is
the feed to the next unit. Figure..
 There is a successive decrease in inlet area and
vortex outlet diameter of each cyclone in the
direction of flow , resulting in a corresponding
increase in inlet velocity and an increase in the
centrifugal forces within the cyclone , resulting
in a successive decrease in the limiting particle
separation size
 Complete elutriation normally takes place about
20 minutes.
229
 Electrical Resistance Method (Coulter Counter)
 The particles , suspended in a known volume of
electrically conductive liquid , flow through a
small aperture having an immersed electrode
on either side. The particle concentration is
such that the particles traverse the aperture
substantially one at a time .
 Each particle passage displaces electrolyte
within the aperture, changing the resistance
between the electrodes.
 Changing the resistance is producing a voltage
pulse of magnitude proportional to particle
volume. The resultant series of pulses is
electronically counted. 230

 It is applicable to the size ange 0.5 – 400 µm

 Laser Beam Particle Size Analysis:
- Based on the diffraction of a light beam by the grains
of powder analysed.
 On Line Particle Size Analysis:
- Depends on the varying absorption of ultrasonic waves
in suspensions of different particle size.

231
INDUSTRIAL SCREENING
 Screening is carried out on coarse material, as the efficiency decreases
rapidly with fineness.
- Fine screens are very fragile
- Expensive
- Easily blocked with retained particles – Blind)
 Screening is generally limited to material above 250 µm in size , finer
sizing being undertaken by classification.

232
 The purposes of screening :
1. To prevent the entry of undersize into crushing machines.
2. To prevent oversize material from passing to the next stage.
3. To prepare closely sized feed to certain gravity concentration process.
4. To produce a closely sized end product.

233
 Performance of Screen
- An efficiency equation can be calculated from a mass balance across a
screen.

234
f = Fraction of material above the cut
point size in the feed.
u = Fraction of material above the cut
point size in the underflow .
c = Fraction of material above the cut
point size in the overflow.

235
 Mass balance F = C+ U
 Mass balance of the oversize Ff =Cc + Uu
 Mass balance of the undersize
F (1-f ) = C (1-c ) + U ( 1-u )

Ff  Cc  Uu C

f u
Fu  Cu Uu F c u
and
_____________
U c f

F ( f  u )  C (c  u ) F c u
236
 The recovery of oversize material into the screen oversize

Cc c f  u 
R1  material in
f c  u 
 Recovery of undersize the screen undersize
Ff

U 1  u  c  f  1  u 
R2  
F 1  f  c  u  1  f 
237
 Combined efficiency :

c   f  u  1  u  c  f 
E
f  c  u   1  f 
2
 If there is no broken or deformed apertures , u=0 and

( means recovery of coarse material in the overflow is 100 %)

c f
E 
c 1  f 
238
 Efficiency formulas are acceptable for assessing the efficiency of a screen
under different working conditions , operating on the same feed. However
, they do not give an absolute value of the efficiency , if the feed is
composed mainly of particles of a size near of the screen aperture (near
mesh material ).

239
 Efficiency or Partition Curve

240
 Partitioncoefficient : % of the feed reporting to
the oversize product.
 Geometric mean : e.i. For -125+63 µm particle ,
geometric mean is 125 63
 Cut point : 50 % probability : The size at which
a particle has equal chance of reporting to the
undersize or oversize.
 Cut point size < Aperture size

241
PROBLEM

 The given data (attached) is given for a 48 mesh

screen. It is required to check the performance
of that vibrating screen.

c f  u 1  u c  f 
Efficiency 
f c  u  1  f 
2

242
Screen scale Feed Oversize Undersize

Mesh Wt % Retained Cum. Wt Wt % Retained Cum. Wt % Retained CumWt

% Wt % %

14 1,5 1,5 5,6 5,6 - -

20 6,1 7,6 22,4 28,0 - -

28 6,6 14,2 28,4 56,4 - -

35 7,0 21,2 27,6 84,0 0,3 0,3

48 7,5 28,7 15,4 99,4 3,8 4,1

65 9,1 37,8 - - 11,8 15,9

100 10,2 48,0 - - 15,1 31,0

150 11,5 59,5 - - 15,7 46,7

200 9,5 69,0 - - 13,0 59,7

PAN 31,0 100,0 0,6 100,0 40,3 100,0

TOTAL 100,0 100,0 100,0

243
 0,994  0,287  0,041 1  0,041 0,994  0,287 
E
0,287  0,994  0,041  1  0,287 
2

0,994  0,246  0,959  0,707 

E
0,287  0,908 0,713

0,165
E  0,8918
0,185

E  89,18% 244
If u0

c-f
E
c1 - f 

0,994  0,287
E  0,997
0,9941  0,287 
245
Factors Affecting Screen Performance

1. CAPACITY AND TIME OF SCREENING

Low feed rate and long screening time give complete separation.
High feed rate reduces dwelling time of particle.
High efficiency and high capacity are opposing requirements.

246
 2. NUMBER OF STRIKES (= VIBRATION OF THE SCREEN )
- The overall probability of passage of particle = Nm of strikes x
Probability of its passage through the screen during a single contact.
- Screens are vibrated in order to increase efficiency ( blinding is reduced
)

247
 Too high vibration rate reduces the efficiency. (as the
particles may bounce from the surface and thrown so
far that there are very few strikes)
 Higher vibrating rates can be used with higher feed
rates ( deeper bed has a cushioning effect which
inhibits particle bounce)

248
Ratio of Chance of Number of
particle to passage per apertures
aperture size 1000 required in
path
0,001 998 1
0,01 980 2
0,1 840 2
0,2 640 2
0,3 490 2
 Probability
0,4 360 3 of passage
0,5 250 4
0,6 140 7
0,7 82 12
0,8 40 25
0,9 9,8 100
0,95 2,0 500
0,99 0,1 10000
249
0,999 0,001 1000000
 3. ANGLE OF APPROACH AND PARTICLE ORIENTATION TO THE SCREEN
- The closer the angle of approach to perpendicular, the higher chance of
passage.
(Non spherical particle , orientation will present a small cross-section
for passage,
Large cross-section –mica- screen badly)

250
 4. OPEN AREA
- Ratio of Net area of the aperture / Whole area of the screening surface
- Open area decreases with the fineness of the aperture of the screens with
wires of the same diameter.
- Very thin wires makes the screen fragile.

251
 5. NATURE OF THE FEED
a -) Near mesh material
The efficiency is markedly reduced by the presence of particles close
to aperture size (blinding)
Close circuit crushing builds-up near mesh material which
progressively reduced efficiency.
Screens are often used having apertures slightly more than the set of
crusher.

252
b-) Amount of moisture
Screening must always be performed on perfectly dry or wet
material , but never on damp material.
Wet screening efficiency is always superior (adherent finest are
washed off and no dust problem)
Disadvantage : Cost of dewatering

253
 INDUSTRIAL
SCREENS
Stationary Moving
Grizzly Revolving
Sieve bend Shaking
Reciprocating
Gyratory
Vibrating

254
 Grizzly
 Very coarse material screening.
 Consist of a series of heavy parallel bars set in a
frame (inclined usually 20-50)
 Used sizing the feed to primary crushers (to scalp
or remove undersize)
 The bars are usually tapered in cross-section to
minimize clogging
 Grizzlies sometimes are shaken or vibrated
mechanically.
 Size of feed can be as large as 30 cm or as small
as 2 cm. The capacity can be up to 1000 t / h.
255
 Sieve bends
 Dutch State Mines (DSM) or Dorr Rapifine
screens are used for very fine wet screening.
 Sieve bend has a curved screen composed of
horizontal wedge bars.
 Feed enters the upper surface of the screen
tangentially , flows down in the direction
perpendicular to the openings between the
wedge bars. A thin layer is peeled off and
directed of the undersize .
 The thickness of the layer peeled off is a
function of the space between the bars ( 25 %
of the slot width)
256
 Separation can be down to 50 m and
capacities are up to 180 m3 / h (concentration
of the pulp : 30 –40 % by wt)
Problem : Whilst separation occurs , a thin
layer passed through the aperture tends to
continue down the back. (convex side ), being
held on by wall effect.
 Solution : A series of crimps on the back can
divert the pulp or periodically the sieve bend is
rapped.

257
 Screening surface commonly is curved in 60 arc
at some radius between 20 –60 inches (30 inches
being the most common). The feed end of the
sieve is tangent to the vertical , so that the
discharge end is at 30 from the horizontal for a
60 sieve bend. Figure ...
 Sieve bends have found an important
application in closed circuit grinding of heavy
mineral ores. Overgrinding of the heavy
minerals , which can occur in conventional
classification can be greately reduced by the
combination of classifiers and sieve bends.
258
259
 Revolving Screens
Rotating cylindrical screen , which is slightly inclined.

Used in wet
or dry condition.

260
Trommels may be arranged in series or in compound form.

261
 Feed size : 55 to 6 mm . Used for grading of sands. Poor capacity (since
only part of the screen surface is in use)

262
 Shaking Screens
 Have reciprocating movement , mechanically induced in the horizontal
direction.
 Operate in the range of 60 – 800 strokes/min.
 Used for relatively large sized feeds , down to 12 mm. Widely used dry in
coal preparation.

263
 Reciprocating Screens
 Have horizontal gyratory motion to the feed end
by means of a unbalanced rotating shaft (rotating
1000 rpm)
 Circular motion : Spreads the feed to whole
width
 Elliptical motion : Screening
 Diminishing screening motion aid the screening
out of the near-mesh material.
 Used for fine screening , mainly dry , in the
range of 10 mm to 250 m , sometimes down to
40 m. 264
265
 Gyratory Screens
 Impart gyratory motion
 For fine screening , down to 40 m, wet or dry.
 Nest of sieves supported on a table.
 Motor is suspended beneath the table.
 Verticalmotion is imparted by the bottom
weights (producing circular tipping motion to
the screen )

266
GYRATORY SCREEN

267
 Vibrating Screen:
 Most important screens. Handle material up to 25 cm in size down to
250 m.
 Vibration is induced vertically by :
1. Mechanical device (applied to the casing)
2. Electrical device (mounted directly to the surface)

268
 Electricallyvibrated screen :
 Operate with high frequency.
 Motion is created by a moving magnet activated
by alternating current. Used for fine feed (< 12
mm ,usually <0.3 mm)
 Mechanically vibrating screens:
 Used for coarse feed
- Eccentric motion : > 4 cm feed , 900-1800 rpm
- Unbalanced pulley : 4-0.3 cm , 1200-3600 rpm
 Vibrating screens have highest capacity , can
work at low slopes , need little headroom.
269
 Screening Surfaces
 The type of screening surface is chosen according
to aperture required and the nature of the work.
- For heavy-duty work : Parallel iron or steel bars
(grizzly)
- Punched Plate : - For heavy duty:
Circular or square holes
- For fine work : Slotted openings.
- Wedge wire screens : For fine screening (sieve
bends)
- Woven-wire cloths : In crushing section
Square mesh : For coarse screening
Rectangular mesh : For fine screening
270
 Rectangular screen apertures have a greater
open area than square mesh screens of the
same wire diameter.
 Increasing the thickness of wire increases the
strenght of the screen, but decreases open area
and hence capacity.
 Non-metallic screen surfaces are also used as
they reduce wear. Polyurethane or rubber
provides resistance to abrasion and impact ,
reducing noise and are lighter in weight.

271
272
273
274
275
Grinding Mills
 Grinding is the last stage of comminution.
 Particlesare reduced by a combination of impact
and abrasion. Operation is either dry or wet.
 Grinding is performed in rotating cylindrical
vessel , known as tumbling mill.
 Grinding medium which is free to move inside the
mill may be steel rods , balls or hard rock (or
ore).
 Feed size between 5 to 250 mm are reduced to 10
–300 m.
276
 All ores have an economic optimum mesh of grind
- Undergrind : Resulted with too coarse product.
- Overgrinding : Resulted with too fine product
(waste energy)

-- In Canadian Cu- Concentrator :

Crushing : 2.2 kwh / t
Flotation : 2.6 kwh / t
Energy intensive process -- Grinding : 11.6 kwh / t
277
 Using Bond’s equation 19 % extra power must
be consumed in grinding on a screen size
finer on a 20,5 screen size.
 Grinding is a result of repeated , random
impacts.
 Grinding within a tumbling mill is influenced
by the size, quantity , the type of motion
and spaces between individual pieces of
medium.
 Grinding is a more random process and is
subject to laws of probability.
278
 Grinding can
take place by;

1. Impact (or
compression)
2. Chipping (due to
oblique forces)
3. Abrasion (due to
forces acting
parallel to the
surface)

279
 Mill Charge (or crop load)
- Medium
- Ore
- Water
 Control of product size is exercised by
- Type of medium
- Speed of rotation
- Nature of ore feed
- Type of circuit used

280
 Medium (grinding) : Loose bodies which occupy slightly
less than half of the volume of the mill. The ore and
water occupy the voids between loose crushing bodies.
 Most of the kinetic energy of the tumbling load is
dissipated as heat , noise or other losses, only a fraction
being expended in actually breaking the particles.

281
 Due to the speed of
mill and friction of
the mill shell , the
grinding medium is
lifted until a
position of dynamic
equilibrium is
reached, the bodies
cascade and
cataract down the
free surface of other
bodies. Figure..

282
 Atlow speeds or with smooth lines , the
medium tend to roll down to the toe of the
mill and essentially abrasive comminution
occurs. This cascading leads to finer grinding
with increased slimes and increased line wear.
 Athigh speeds, the medium is projected to
describe a series of parabolas before falling
down on the toe of the charge. This
cataracting leads to comminution by impact
and a coarser end product with reduce liner
wear.
283
 The theoretical basis for evaluating the mill speed is the
CRITICAL SPEED which may be defined as the speed at
which centrifugal and gravitational forces affecting the
crop load are at equilibrium and therefore the load will
be centrifuged on the surface of the liner ( freeze-up )
and no work will be done.

284
d : Diameter of ball
or rod
D : Diameter of mill
v : Linear velocity of
the ball , m/s

285
 m.v 2
m.g . cos  
D d

2 2

v2
cos   .............(1)
D d
  .g
 2 2

2 r N
v is related with rpm ( v  ) Peripheral speed
60

D d 
2    N
 2 2
v ................(2) 286

60
Put (2) into (1)
2
 D d  
 2   N 
  2 2  
 60 
 
cos    
 D d 
  g
 2 2 

2 2 D  d  N 2
2
cos  
60 2 D  d g

N C  Critical speed
when   0
287

cos   1
 60 2 D  d g 60 g
N 
2 2 D  d 
2
2 Dd

1 Nc : rpm
N C  42.3
Dd D, d: m

1 g = ft / sec2
N C  76.65 D = ft
Dd
v = ft / sec
m = lb.

288
 Itis common practice to increase the value of
calculated critical speed by as much as 20 %.
 Mills are driven in practice at speeds of 50–90 %
of critical speed (70 –80 % for coarse , 50 –70 %
for fine size)
 High speeds increase capacity. (But coarse
grinding). Cataracting at high speeds converts
the potential energy of the medium into kinetic
energy of the impact on the toe of the charge .
(Cataracting medium should fall well inside the
mill charge and not directly onto the liner)
289
TUMBLING MILLS
 Tumbling mills :
1. Rod Mill
2. Ball Mill
3. Autogenous Mill

They consist of : Horizontal cylindrical shell with

renewable wearing liners ,
charge of grinding medium.

They rotate on its axis on hollow trunnions

attached to the end walls.
290
 The diameter of the mill determines the pressure exerted by the medium
on the ore particles.
 The larger the feed size , the larger needs to be the mill diameter.
 The length of the mill ( with diameter) determines the volume and hence
the capacity of the mill.

291
 Construction of mills :
- Shell
- Mill Ends ( Trunnion heads)
- Trunnions and Bearings
- Drive ( mills are commonly rotated by a pinion
meshing with gear ring bolted to one end of the
machine )
- Liners (to lift the charge and to protect the
main frame)

292
Trunnion

293
Gear of Mill

294
 End liners in rod mill : Manganese or chrome-manganese steel
 End liners in ball mill : Cast iron , alloyed with Ni –hard.
 Shell liners : Alloyed steel or cast iron
 Lifter bars : Hard alloy
 Rubber liners and lifters :
 Longer lasting
 Easier and faster to install
 Reduction of noise level.

295
296
297
 Mill Feeders : The type of feeders depends on
1. Open or closed circuit operation
2. Wet or dry grinding
3. Size and rate of feed.
 Dry Mills : Vibratory Feeder
 Wet Grinding Mills :
1. Spout Feeder
2. Drum Feeders
3. Combination drum – scoop feeders

298
 Spout Feeder : Consisting of a cylindrical or
elliptical chute. Material is fed by gravity
through the spout to feed the mills. Often used
for feeding rod mills operated open-circuit or
mills in closed circuit with hydrocyclone.

299
 Drum Feeders : Used when headroom is limited.

300
 Drum-Scoop Feeders : Generally used for wet grinding in
closed circuit with a spiral . New material is fed directly
into the drum , while the scoop picks up the classifier
sands for regrinding.

Scoop Feeders are used when mill feed is in the fine

range. 301
ROD MILLS
 It is coarse grinding machines.
 Feed as large as 50 mm , product as fine as 300 m. Reduction ratios  15-
20 : 1
 Rod mills are often preferred to fine crushing machines when the ore is
clayey or damp , thus tending to choke crushers.
 Rod mill length : (1.5 – 2.5 )x Diameter
 Rods are a few cm shorter than the length of the mill. Rods > 6 m length
will bend. This establishes the max length of mill.

302
 IMPORTANT : With a mill 6.4 m long , the diameter of mill should not be
over 4.57 m. ( It runs by 1640 kW motors)

 Grinding mills are rated by power rather than capacity since the capacity
is determined by grindability and Rr

303
 Rod mills are classified according to the nature of
discharge:
1. Centre peripheral discharge : Mills are fed both ends
through the trunnions and discharge through the ports at the
center of the shell. The short path and steep gradient give a
coarse grind with a minimum of fines , but the Rr is limited.
May be used in wet or dry.

304
2- End peripheral discharge mills:
Mills are fed at one end through the trunnion ,
discharging the ground product from the other end of
the mill by means of several peripheral apertures .
Mill is used mainly dry and damp grinding , and gives
moderately coarse products.

305
3 – Trunnion Overflow :
Feed is introduced from one trunnion and discharges
through the other. It is the most widely used mill type .
Used always for wet grinding.
A flow gradient is provided by making the overflow
trunnion diameter 10 –20 cm larger than the fed
opening. The discharge trunnion is fitted with a spiral
screen to remove tramp material.

306
 Rod mill charge contains rods of varying
diameters ranging from 25 to 150 mm. The
smaller the rods , the larger is the total surface
area and hence the greater the grinding
efficiency. A coarse feed or product normally
requires larger rods.
 Generally , rods should be removed when they
are worn down to about 25 mm in diameter or
less , as small ones tend to bend or break . High
carbon steel rods are used as they are hard.
307
 Optimum grinding rates are obtained with new rods when the volume is 35
% of the shell. This reduces to 20 – 30 % with wear. With the new rods ,
the volume occupied wil be about 45 % of the shell. Overcharging results
in inefficient grinding and increased liner and rod consumption.
 Rod consumption is normally in the range 0.1-1.0 kg of steel per tonne of
ore for wet grinding, being less for dry grinding.

308
 Rod mills are normally run at between 50 –65 % of
the critical speed so that the rods cascade rather
than cataract. The pulp density is usually between
65 and 85 % solids by weight. Finer feeds require
lower pulp densities. The grinding action results
from line contract of the rods on the ore
particles. The coarse feed tends to spread the
rods at the feed end , so producing a wedge or
cone-shaped array. This increases the tendency
for grinding to take place preferentially on the
larger particles , thereby producing a minimum
amount of extremely fine particles (close size
range with little slime)
 IMPORTANT : Rod mills are suitable for
preparation of feed to gravity concentration.
309
BALL MILLS
 The final stages af comminution are performed
in ball mill. Since balls have a greater surface
area per unit weight than rods, they are better
suited for fine grinding. Figure..
 In ball mills : The length / diameter ratio is
between 1.5 to 1 and less.
 Tube mills : Length / diameter ratio is between
3 to 5 :1 (sometimes divided into different
compartments , each having different charge
composition ). The charges can be steel balls or
rods or pebbles. They are often used dry to
grind cement clinker , gypsum and phosphate.
310
Pebble mill : It is a tube mill with only one
compartment and a charge of hard , screened
ore particles as grinding medium.
Since the weight of pebbles per unit volume
is 35-55 % of steel balls , and as power input is
directly proportional to the volume weight of the
grinding medium , the power input and capacity
of pebble mills are lower.

 For a certain feed rate , a pebble mill

should be much larger than a ball mill ,
with higher capital cost.

311
 Ball mills are classified by the nature of the discharge:
1. Trunnion overflow

2. Grate discharge ( low level discharge )

312
In grate discharge mill , discharge grates are fitted between the cylindrical
mill body and the discharge trunnion. They have a lower pulp level than
overflow mills , thus reducing the dwell time (very little overgrinding).
High circulating loads, but a closely sized end product , high output per
unit volume.

313
314
 Trunnion overflow mill is the simplest to operate and is used for most ball
mill applications , especially for fine grinding. Energy consumption is
about 15 % less than grate discharge mill of the same size.

315
316
 Ball mills are rated by power rather than capacity.
 The largest ball mills are 5.5 m diameter and 7.3 m in length and are
driven by 4000 kW motors.
 Grinding in ball mill is effected by point contact of balls and the process is
completely random. The probability of fine particles being struck by a ball
is the same as that of a coarse particle.

317
 Several factors influence the efficiency of ball
mill grinding:
1. Pulp Density : Should be as high as possible ,
because too dilute pulp increases metal to
metal contact, increasing steel consumption.
It is essential that the balls are coated with a
layer of ore.Ball mills should operate between
65 and 80 % solids by weight. Viscosity of the
pulp increases with the fineness of the
particle, therefore fine grinding circuits may
need lower pulp densities.
318
2 – Surface Area of the Grinding Medium:
Mill charge will consist of a wide range of
ball sizes and the charge should be graded such
that the largest balls are heavy enough to grind
the largest and hardest particles in feed.
New balls added to the mill are usually of
the large size required.
Undersize balls leave the mill with the ore
product and can be removed by passing the
discharge over screens.
319
 Ratio of ball size to ore size :
d=k.D 0,5-1
d = Ball diameter
D = Feed size
k = Constant , 55 for chert
35 for dolomite
 Primary grinding : 10 – 5 cm diameter balls
 Secondary grinding : 5 – 2 cm diameter balls

 Grinding balls : Made of forged or rolled

high – or alloy steel or east iron.
320
Hardinge Mill

321
 Provides segregation of the mill charge within the mill.
 Has conical section with an angle of 30.
 Due to the centrifugal force generated , the balls are segregated so that
the largest are at the feed end of the cone (due to the largest diameter
and greatest centrifugal force) and the smallest are at the discharge.

322
 Consumption : 0.1 – 1 kg / t of ore,depending on
hardness of ore,fineness of grind and medium quality
(abrasive wear and corrosion ) (Very hard media may
lead to lower grind efficiencies due to the slippage)

323
3 – Charge Volume : The
charge volume is about 40 –50 % of
the internal volume of the mill, about 40 % of this being
void space.
The energy input to a mill increases with the ball
charge and reaches a maximum at a charge volume of
approximately 50 %.
In free overflow mill, the charge volume is usually
40 %.

324
4 – Speed : The optimum mill speed increases
with charge volume, as the increased weight of
charge reduces the amount of cataracting
taking place.
Ball mills are operated at higher speeds than
the rods, so that the larger balls cataract and
impact on the ore particles.
Ball mills are run at a high speed as possible
without centrifuging. Normally this is 70-80 % of
the critical speed.
325
AUTOGENOUS MILLS
 Comminution is achieved by the action of the
ore particles on each other.
Semi- autogenous(SAG) milling refers to grinding
methods using a combination of the ore and a
reduced load of steel rods or balls (6 – 10 % of
the mill volume, including voids).
 Advantages :
1. Lower capital cost
2. Ability of handling wet and sticky material
3. Relatively simple flowsheet
4. Large size of available equipment
5. Lower manpower requirements
6. Minimal grinding media expense 326
 Where the proportion of coarse fraction in the
feed is too low, pebble milling is sometimes
used. Coarsest fraction of the feed is
separated , by screening , and the remainder is
crushed in conventional machinery to a
considerably smaller size. The crushed material
and the coarse fraction are put into pebble
mills for completion of fine grinding.
 Autogenous milling may be performed wet or
dry. Dry milling have more environmental
problems, do not handle materials containing
clay well, and more difficult to control than
wet mills.
327
Aerofall Mill ( Dry autogenous
mill )

328
 However , in grinding of minerals such as
asbestos, talc , and mica , dry semi-autogenous
milling is used exclusively. Dry autogenous mills
have low output.
 Scandinavian and South African practice :
L/D=1–2
 North American primary autogenous mills:
Large diameter
The largest with 9000 kW motors, L / D  1/3
 Cascade mill : L / D = 1 / 3 . It is lined with
wearing plates held by lift bars bolted to the
sheel. Lift bars are essentially to reduce
slippage of the mill load, and also impairs the
grinding action. 329
 Autogenous mills are normally operated at very
high speeds, up to 90 % critical.
 Primary autogenous mills can achieve size
reductions from 25 cm to 0.1 mm in one piece of
equipment.
 Fractures in rock being reduced autogenous are
principally at the grain or crystal boundaries. Thus
the product sizing is around the region of grain or
crystal size( with minimal overgrinding)
330
 Autogenous primary mills can not be selected
from bench scale grinding tests as they require
more extensive testing than rod or ball mills.
 Disadvantages: Power consumption of primary
autogenous mills can be higher than
conventional crushing and grinding by between
25 and 100 %
However , in secondary autogenous grinding,
unit power cost is comparable to conventional
milling.
 Feed Type : Autogenous mills are suitable for
materials with a friable ,grainy nature (such as
silica rock, asbestos, bauxite, ferrosilicon,
taconite, cement clinker 331
VIBRATORY MILLS

332
 Designed for continuous or batch grinding to give a very fine end product,
the operation being performed either wet or dry.
 Two tubes functioning as vibratory grinding cylinders are located one
above the other in a plane inclined at 30 to the perpendicular. Between
them lies an eccentrically supported weight, connected to a 1000 – 1500
rpm motor.

333
 The cylinders are filled to about 60 –70 % with
grinding medium, usually steel balls of diameter
10 –50 mm.
 The material being ground passes longitudinally
through the cylinder like a fluid , in a complex
spinning helix, thus allowing the grinding
medium to reduce it by attrition. The material is
fed and discharged through flexible bellow type
hoses.
 Vibratorymills are small in size , lower power
consumption relative to throughput.
334
 High energy vibrating mills can grind materials
to surface areas of around 500 m2/ g(which is
impossible in a conventional mill)
 Conventional mills product :e.g –200 mesh solid
(cubic) gives 674 cm2/gram.
 Vibratory mills are made with capacities up to
15 tph (unit with capacities above 5 tph involve
engineering problems)
 Feed size range  30mm
End product size  -10 m
335
TOWER MILLS

336
 An alternative to ball mills for very fine grinding.
 Steel balls or pebbles are placed in a vertical chamber in which an
internal screw provides medium agitation.
 Feed enters at the top with mill water and is reduced in size by attrition
and abrasion as it falls. The finely ground material is carried upwards by
pumped liquid and overflowing to a classifier.

337
 Advantages :
1. Small installation area
2. Low noise levels
3. Efficient energy usage
4. Minimal overgrinding
5. Low capital and operating costs

 Product sizes may be 1 – 100 m at

capacities up to 100 tph.
338
GRINDING CIRCUITS

 Dry grinding : Necessary with some materials due to the physical or

chemical changes occur if water is added.
 It causes less wear on the liners and grinding media and there is a high
proportion of fines in the product which may be desirable in some cases.

339
 Wet grinding advantages :
1. Lower power consumption per tonne of
product
2. Higher capacity per unit mill volume
3. Makes possible to use of wet screening and
classification for closed product control
4. Elimination of the dust problem.
5. Simple handling and transport such as
pipes , pumps.
340
 Circuits may be open and closed
 The material returned to the mill by the
classifier is known as the Circulating Load, and
its weight is expressed as a percentage of the
weight of new feed
 The optimum circulating load for a particular
circuit is usually in the range 100 – 350 % ,
although it can be as high as 600 %
 Many classifiers can be used to closed circuit ,
such as mechanical classifiers and
hydrocylones. To prevent overgrinding of heavy
sulphide minerals, sometimes sieve bends can
be used rather than classifier. 341
 Example to cyclone and screen in the closed-circuit.

342
 Example to two-stage grinding circuit:

343
 Rod – Ball Mill Grinding Circuits:

344
 Calculation of circulating load :
A mechanical classifier receives its feed
from a ball mill and produces :
1. Finished material which overflows to the next
operation
2. Sand which returns to the mill for further
size-reduction.
 The term Circulating Load is defined as the
tonnage of sand that returns to the ball
mill ,and the Circulating Load Ratio is the
ratio of circulating load to the tonnage of the
original feed to the ball mill.
345
 Assume :
F = New feed rate (tph)
C = Circulating load (tph)

Circulating Load Ratio = C / F

Mass balance on the classifier
F + C = C + F ( = P)
Ball mill Circulating Load
discharge and product
346
 a : % Wt in any size fraction in the mill
product
b : % Wt in any size fraction in the
circulating load =sand
c : % Wt in any size fraction in the
classifier overflow

347
(F  C ) .a  Fc  Cb
Fa  Ca  Fc  Cb
F (a - c)  C (b - a)
Circulatin g Load Ratio :
C ac

F ba
348
PROBLEM

 By using the following data calculate the circulating load ratio and
circulating load for 65 mesh separation.

349
Mesh Mill Classifier Circulating
Discharge(a) Overflow (c) Load (b)
Wt % Cum. Wt % Cum. Wt % Cum.
Wt % Wt % Wt %
+48 42,3 42,3 1,2 1,2 55,7 55,7
+65 15,3 57,6 6,6 7,8 18,2 73,9
+100 9,5 67,1 9,4 17,2 9,6 83,5
+150 5,7 72,8 10,2 27,4 4,2 87,7
+200 6,1 78,9 12,4 39,8 4,1 91,8
-200 21,1 100,0 60,2 100,0 8,2 100,0
Total 100,0 100,0 100,0
350
- Daily tonnage of the mill (F) is 200 tons.
- For 65 mesh separation
Circulating Load Ratio:
C ac 57,6  7,8
   3,06t
F b  a 73,9  57,6

- Circulating Load : 3,06 x 200 = 612 tons

- For 150 mesh separation :
C 72,8  27,4
  3,05
F 87,7  72,8

- Circulating Load = 3,05 x 200 = 610 tons. 351

352
353
CLASSIFICATION
 Screening : Separation of particles acc. to size
 Classification : Separation of particles according
to their mass
Classification is separation of minerals into two
or more products on the basis of the velocity
which the grains fall through a fluid medium
(usually water).
Wet classification is generally applied to mineral
particle which are too fine to be separated
efficiently by screening.
 Velocity of particles in a fluid medium is
dependent on the;
 i) Size, ii)Specific gravity. iii) Shape
354
Principles to classification
 When a solid particle falls freely in a vacuum, it
is subject to constant acceleration and its
velocity increase indefinitely, being
independent of size and density.
e.g. Lump of lead and a feather fall at
exactly the same rate.
 Inair or water (viscous medium), there is
resistance to the movement and it increases
with velocity.
R= f ()
355
 When equilibrium is attained between the
gravitational and fluid resistance forces, the
body reaches its terminal velocity and then falls
at a uniform rate.
 The nature of the resistance depends on the
velocity of descent. At low velocities motion is
smooth. All the resistance to motion is due to
the shear forces or viscosity of the fluid and is
called VISCOUS RESISTANCE.
 Athigh velocities, the resistance is due to the
displacement of fluid by the body, this is known
as TURBULENT RESISTANCE.
356
 Consider a spherical particle falling under gravity in a viscous fluid under
free falling conditions (in a fluid of infinite extent).

357
 The particle is under 3 forces;
1. Gravitational force (acting downward)
2. Bouyant force due to displaced fluid (acting
upward)
3. Drag force (acting upward)

358
 mass x acceleration =  of all forces

d '
m.  m.g  m g  R
dt

m : Mass of solid particle

m' : Mass of displaced fluid
υ : Velocity of solid particle
g : Gravity accelerati on
359
 When terminal velocity is reached, acceleration will be
zero , dv/dt = 0
 mg – m’g = R for viscous resistance R= 3d
1 1
 d  s g -  d 3 ' g  3  d v
3

6 6
1
6
 
 d 3 g  s   '  3  d v

v
 
g.d 2 .  s   '
18
......................................
v  m / sec
2
g  9,81 m / sec
dm 360

  0,001 Nsec / m 2 for water

 For turbulent resistance
R = 0.055  d2 v2 ’

Newton’s Law


3.g.d.  s   '

'


361
 Stokes’Law is valid for particles < 50m in
diameter.
 Newton ‘s Law is valid for particles larger than
0.5 cm.

 The upper size limit is determined by the

dimensionsless Reynolds’ number.
Stokes’ Law : 10-4 - 1 Re
'
Transition : 1- 103 Re
 .d .
Newton’s Law : 103 – 10 5 Re Re 
362

 There is an intermediate range of particles which corresponds to the
range in which wet classification is performed, in which neither law fits.
Stokes’ Law is simplified to
v = k1.d2.(s- ’)
Newton’s Law is simplified to
v = k2.[d.(s-’)]1/2
(s- ’) is known as Effective Density

363
 Both law show that : The terminal velocity of a
particle is a function of particle size and density.
1. If two particles have the same density, then the
particle with the diameter has the higher terminal
velocity.
2. If two particles have the same diameter, then the
heavier particle has the higher terminal velocity.

364
 Sorting Column : Classification takes place in which a fluid is rising at a
uniform rate. Figure..

365
Problem

 Calculate the Stokes’ diameter of quartz particles (sp. gr. 2.65),

corresponding to an observed time of sedimentation of 2 minutes over a
distance of 20 cm in water at 15C ( = 0.0113 poise)

366
 Free falling velocity =
20 cm/2 min = 10 cm/min = 0.1667 cm/sec

v
1 d 2.  - 

 '
 g
18 
d 2 ( 2.65  1).981
0.1667  
18 0.0113

2 18 x 0,1667 x 0,0113
d   2094 x10 8 cm
1,65 x 981

d  45,76 x10  4 cm
d  45,76  367
 To check whether the motion within the range of Stokes’ Law, the
Reynold’s Number is calculated :

'
v.d .
R

-4
0,1667 x 45,8 x 10 x1
R  0,0675
0,0113

As R e  1, the motion is within th e range

of Stokes. 368
 Free – settling Ratio : The ratio of particle size required for the two
minerals to fall at equal rates.
 Equal Settling Particles = As two minerals have the same settling rate,
their terminal velocities must be the same

369
 For Stokes’ Law

1 1
 g  d H   H    
2 '
 g  d L   L   
2 '

18 18
1
d L  H   ' 2

d H  L   
'

370
 For Newtons’ Law :

dL   '
 H

 As a result ; dH  L 
'

n
dL   '



H


L 
'
dH  

n  0.5 - - - -Stokes'
n  1 - - - - - Newton
371
 Consider a mixture of galena (PbS)
(sp. gr: 7.5) and quartz(SiO2) (sp. gr: 2.65).
 For small particles

 For large particles 1

dL  7,5  1  2
   1,99  2
dH  2,65  1 

dL  7,5  1 
   3,94  4
dH  2,65  1  372
 IMPORTANT : The free-settling ratio is larger for coarse particles. The
density difference between the mineral particles has a more pronounced
effect on classification at coarser size ranges.

 Overgrinding of the ore must be avoided.

373
Hindered Settling
 When the solid percentage in the pulp increases,
the effect of particle crowding becomes more
appearent, and falling rate of the particles
begins to decrease.
 The system begins to behave as a heavy liquid
whose density is that of the pulp rather than that
of the carrier liquid. Hindered settling conditions
prevail.
 In hindered settling, because of the high density
and viscosity of the slurry, the resistance to fall
is mainly due to the turbulence created, and
Newton’s Law can be used to determine the
falling rate of the particles. 374
 Hindered settling increases the effect of density
on classification while reducing the effect of size.
 Example : Quartz – Galena mixture in a pulp
density of 1.5.
Hindered settling ratio

dL 7,5  1,5
  5,22
d H 2,65  1,5

 Infree – settling condition, the ratio was 3.94 for

turbulent resistance.
375
 IMPORTANT : The hindered – settling ratio is always
greater than the free –settling ratio. Denser the pulp,
the greater is the ratio of the diameter of equal settling
particles.
 For quartz and galena, the greatest hindered – settling
ratio attained practically is about 7.5 which has dP=1.90

376
 Hindered settling classifiers are used to increase the
effect of density on the separation, whereas free –
settling classifiers use dilute suspensions to increase the
effect of size on separation.
 Hindered settling classifiers : Prepare feed for gravity
separation method.
 Free settling classifiers : Sizing

377
 Free – Settling Condition :
When the solid % by weight < 35 %
( Most common < 15 % )

 Hindered – Settling Condition :

When the solid % by weight > 35 %
(Usually between 35 – 70 %)

378
 Asthe pulp density increases, a point is reached
where each mineral particle is covered only with
a thin film of water. This is known as a
Quicksand. Although solids are in perfect
suspension, they do not separate
 Thesolids are in a condition of full teeter, which
means that each grain is free to move , but is
unable to do so, and as a result stays in place.
A condition of teeter can be produced in a
classifier sorting column by putting a constriction
in the column, either by tapering the column or
by inserting a grid into the base.
379
 Teeter chambers
(Hindered – settling
columns)

 Teetering particles has a scouring effect which removes any entrained

particles, therefore cleaner separations can be made.

380
TYPE OF CLASSIFIER

1. Horizontal Current Classifiers (Mechanical Classifiers) :

Free – settling type and accentuate the sizing function (Sizing
classifiers)
2. Vertical Current Classifiers (Hydraulic Classifiers) :
Hindered – settling type, so increased the effect of density on
separation. (Sorting Classifiers)

381
Hydraulic Classifiers

 They consist of a series of sorting columns through each of which a

vertical current of water is rising and particles are settling out .(additional
water uses besides feed pulp)

382
383
 In the first column, the velocity of rising
current is high, and it is low in the last.
Therefore a series of spigot products are
obtained, with the coarser and denser
particles in the first spigot and fines in the
latter spigots. Very fine slimes overflow the
final sorting column of the classifier.

 The size of each column increases successively

due to
1. Amount of liquid handled increases
2. To reduce the velocity of the fluid flowing
from one vessel to the next.
384
 Hydraulic Classifiers :

1. Free settling (rarely used) (each column has

the same cross-sectional area and has high
capacity)
2. Hindered settling

 The greatest use of hydaulic classifier is in the

type of hindered – settling which is used for
sorting the feed to gravity concentration process
such as shaking table.
385
 Sorting column is constricted at the bottom in
order to produce a teeter chamber (absence in
free settling type). Hindered – settling classifiers
use less water and is more selective in its action
due to the scouring action in the teeter
chamber.

 The first spigot product is normally of higher

grade than the other products. This is known as
the added increment of the classifier (sometimes
can be rich enough to be classed as concentrate)
386
 In modern multi – spigot hydrosizers, the teeter bed
composition is automatically controlled to prevent the
grow of teeter bed and to build up density.

387
 Each hindered – settling sorting columns (teeter
chamber) is provided at its bottom with a
(vertical) water current. Each teeter chamber
is fitted with a discharge spigot which is
connected to a pressure-sensitive valve, which
may be hydraulically or electrically operated.
 It is adjusted to balance the pressure set up by
the teetering material. The discharge will take
place at a nearly constant density (for quartz it
is about 64 % solids by weight, but is higher for
heavier minerals).

388
Horizontal Current Classifiers

 Settling Cones :

 Used to separate the solids from the liquid

(Dewatering).
 Used as desliming
A bed of settled sand builds up until it reaches
the level. Then the spigot valve is opened and
sand discharge maintained at a rate equal to
that of the input.
(Problem : not to maintain regular discharge)
389
 Suspended circular tank provides automatic
discharge mechanism, due to the weight of
accumulated wight of sand.

390
 Mechanical classifiers ( as sizing device)

1. In closed – circuit grinding operations

2. In the classification of products from ore –
washing plants.

Feed is introduced into the inclined trough

and forms a pool. Pool is consisted of :
3. Coarse sand (at the bottom)
4. Quick sand zone (Hindered settling)
5. Free settling zone (fines removed)

391
392
 Function of conveying mechanism :
1. To convey up the settled sands
2. To keep fine sands in suspension by agitation

 Rake Classifier :
- Actuated by an eccentric motion.
- Dip into the settled material, move it up , then withdrawn, and
return to the starting point.
 Duplex type : One rake is moving up, the other returns.

393
 Spiral classifier : Use a continuously revolving spiral to
move the sands up the slope.
Can be operated at steeper slopes than the rake
classifier (aid the drainage of sands)

394
 Separation in a classifier depends on

1. Increasing the feed rate increases the horizontal carrying

capacity and increases the size of particle in the overflow.

2. The speed of the rakes or spiral determines the degree of

agitation of the pulp and the tonnage rate of sand removal.(
For finer separation, less agitation and lower raking speed)

3. The height of the overflow weir : Increasing the weir height

increases the pool volume, and hence allows more settling
time which causes for fine separation.

4. Dilution of the pulp : Increased dilution reduces the density

of the weir overflow, and increases free settling , allowing
finer particles to settle. Thus finer separations are
395

produced.
 In closed circuit grinding operations, ball mill discharges >
65 % solids by weight, whereas mechanical classifiers never
operate at more than 50 % solids
 IMPORTANT : Water is added for dilution. Finer separation
are produced with more dilution.

 The overflow pulp density should be above a value known

as the Critical Dilution, which is normally about 10 %
solids. Below this density, the effect of increasing rising
velocity with dilution causes coarser size overflow product

396
 One of the major disadvantages of the mechanical
classifier is its inability to produce overflow of very
fine particle size at reasonable pulp densities.

 Thickening is necessary for very dilute pulp which

increases the capital cost. Also oxidation may occur
on liberated particles which affect froth flotation.

397
Hydrocyclone

 Hydrocyclone is a classifying device that

utilises centrifugal force to accelerate the
settling rate of particles.

 Uses of hydrocyclone :
1. As a classifier (in closed – circuit operation)
2. De – sliming
3. Thickening
4. For the washing of fine coal.
398
 Vortex finder : Prevents short circuiting of feed directly to overflow.
 Feed is introduced under pressure through tangential entry (imparts a
swirling motion) . This creates a vortex in the cyclone

399
 A particle within the flow pattern are subjected to
two opposing forces:

1. An outward centrifugal force.

2. An inwardly acting drag force.

 Faster coarse settling particles move to the wall of

the cyclone and migrate to the apex opening.
 Due to the action of the drag force, the slower-
settling fine particles move towards the zone of
low pressure and are carried upward through the
400

vortex-finder to the overflow.

 The existence of an outer region of downward
flow and an inner region of upward flow
necessitates a position at which there is no
vertical velocity. (an envelope of zero vertical
velocity)
 Particle lying on the envelope of zero velocity
are acted upon by equal centrifugal and drag
forces and have an equal chance of reporting
either to the underlow or overflow. Figure..

401
 Hydrocyclones have replaced mechanical
classifiers as :
1. They are more efficient, especially in the
finer sizes.
2. The require less floor space.
3. They can rapidly be brought into balance (due
to the relatively short residence time of
particles within the cyclone.)
4. Oxidation of particles is reduced.
5. Used for classification between 150 and 5 m.
402
Cyclone Efficiency
 Cyclone efficiency is represented by performance
or partition curve which relates the weight % of
each particle size in the feed which reports to the
underflow, versus to the particle size.
 Cut point (separation size) is defined as that point
on the partition curve for which 50 % of particles
in the feed on that size report to the underflow.
 Particles of this size have an equal chance of
going either with the underflow or overflow (d50)

403
404
 The sharpness of the cut depends on the slope of the central section of
the partition curve.
 The closer to vertical is the slope, the higher the efficiency
 The efficiency of separation (Imperfection):

d 75  d 25
I
2d 50
405
Factors Affecting Cyclone Performance

 Design parameters
1. Feed inlet
2. Vortex finder
3. Apex opening
4. Cyclone size (diameter of cyclone)
 Operational parameters:
1. Feed rate and pressure drop
2. Dilution (pulp density)

406
 Dahlstrom emprical equation to calculate d50 :

13,7  D0  Di 
0 , 68
d 50diameter

 S  L 
- D0 = Overflow 0 , 53 0,5
- Di = Inlet diameter
Q
- Q = Flow rate (m3 / h)
- S = Specific gravity of solid
- L = Specific gravity of liquid

407
 Such equations are not directly applicable to
industrial scale cyclones, as most of the work
was carried out on dilute slurries using very
small diameter cyclones.
 Plitt has developed a mathematical model for
large diameter cyclones, operating at high
solids content.
 Krebs cyclones ( Typical cyclone ) :
- Has inlet area of about 7 % of the cross-
sectional area of the feed chamber.
- A vortex finder of diameter 35-40 % of the
cyclone diameter.
- Apex diameter normally not less than 25 % of
the vortex diameter. 408
  The equation for the cyclone cut-point is:

0,77 Dc1,875 exp 0,301  0,0945V  0,00356V 2  0,0000684V 3 

d 50c  
Q 0,6  S  1
0,5

- DC = Inside diameter of hydrocyclone

- V = Volumetric % of solids in feed
- S = Density of solids (g / cm3 )

409
 Q  9,4 x 10-3 P x D c2 (m 3 / h)
- P = Pressure drop across the cyclone in kPa
( 1 psi = 6,895 kPa)

 The equations can also be used in the selection of cyclones for a

particular duty : the final cut-point and capacity made by adjusting the
size of inlet, vortex finder and apex.

410
411
412
413
MINERAL PROCESSING II

MINE-310
Prof. Dr. GÜLHAN ÖZBAYOĞLU
414
METHODS OF SEPARATION
 If the comminution of ore is sufficiently
performed ,each of resulting particles acquire
distinguishing characteristics which can be exploited by
a suitable separation (concentrating) process.
 The word ‘Concentration’ denotes the selective
separation of the feed into characteristic product.

415
 e.g.

416
 Treatment of Middling
 a-) Separation with returned middling(s)

417
 b-) Separation with re-grinding of middlings

418
 Types of Middling
 Middling particles can be associated in various ways:

419
 The behaviour of middling can be strongly
influenced by the characteristics of its minerals.

a : Would need breaking before it could be correctly

graded ( it will respond well to flotation or chemical
treatment )
 c : The valuable mineral is deposited as a shell on a
core of gangue , is likely to behave as a tailing in
gravity work and as a clean concentrate in flotation.
 d : is usually lost in flotation, but satisfactorily
relieved of its value in a solvating process.
 a,c,d : If the value is ferromagnetic, should respond
to electromagnetic pull.
420
 b,e,f,g : Might act as gravity middlings.
When the values are almost or quite masked
by gangue, they will be completely lost in
flotation or chemical attact.
 g : A special case . Regrinding must be far
more elaborate than in usual cases ( if gold
is segregated in the pyrite only a few
microns in size ). Here roasting treatment is
usually preferred to further comminution.

421
 If the ore contains one valuable mineral, the concentration method
applied is simple.
 If the ore contains nore than one economically recoverable
mineral, treatment is more complicated.
 2 procedure may be applied for concentration
1. Bulk concentration
2. Step by step concentration

422
 BULK CONCENTRATION

423
 STEP BY STEP CONCENTRATION

424
 STAGED CONCENTRATION
 Here,the concentrates are removed at definite
stages of comminution.

425
 Ifflotation is used, instead of removing finished
concentrates by stages , it may be feasible to
discard liberated gangue at each grinding stages.

426
 InMineral Processing, the usual arrangement is
more compact, the separating machines being
marshalled into blocks, called roughers, cleaners
and scavengers.

427
 Properties of Minerals Utilized in Concentration

428
ORE SORTING

 It is the original concentration process. It involves appraisal of

individual ore particles and the rejection of those particles that do not
warrant further treatment
1. Hand picking
2. Mechanised sorting

429
Hand Picking
 Hand picking is a time- honored method of
concentration.It consists of sorting the ore
into pieces of various grades ;choice being
based on colour, lustre and other features of
the ‘’ appearance’’ or ‘’feel’’ of each lump.
 Itis a laborious method suitable only where
labour is cheap.
 Since a definite of time is required to
examine one piece of ore, the cost of the
process must increase tremendous with
fineness (there is a limit in lower size).
430
 On the other, a limit is placed by the weight of a single piece that
can be handled, and by the increase locking with coarseness.
 Hand picking is practicable only for pieces and lumps coarser than 40
mm in diameter and up to about 500 mm.
 The material is picked up either or both, to remove an enriched
fraction or to discard waste.

431
 Illumination should be uniform.
The ore is preferably washed before sorting.
The ore must be sized to remove fines.
 Sometimes, ultraviolet light can be used to pick
up fluorescent material.
 The essential structural features of an efficient
picking process :
1. Continuous presentation of feed to the pickers.
( The individual particles should be readily
visible and recognizable. )
2. Convenient facilities for disposal of selected
particles. ( Belt, pan or shaking conveyors and
revolving tables are used, to obtain moving
stream of feed.) 432
 Therate of travel of the ore should be slow
enough to permit the picking : 20-30 cm/sec is
average.
 Handpicking has declined its importance due to
the need of treatment large quantities of low
grade ore which requires extremely fine grinding.

433
MECHANICAL SORTING (Electronic
Sorting)
 It is feasible when the ore is economically liberated at a fairly coarse
size ,  > 10 mm.
 It is essential that a distinct difference in the physical property is
appearent between the valuable minerals and gangue.

434
 Principle :

435
 Operational conditions before sorting :

Washing of particle surface

Sizing

Monolayer feeding
436
A-Photometric Sorting

437
 Based on differences in light reflectance of
particles ( mechanised hand picking )

 The basis of the photometric sorter is a laser

light source and a sensitive photomultiplier ,
used in a scanning system to detect light
reflected from the surfaces of rocks, passing
through the sorting zone.

 Electronic circuit analyses the

photomultiplier signal which changes with
the intensity of the reflected light then it
actuates the valves of an air – blast rejection
device to remove selective particles.
438
 The sorter is fully automatic.

 The capacity of machine ranges from 50 tph

for ( -65 mm + 30 mm ) feed , to 200 tph for
a ( -150 mm + 70 mm ) material.

439
SORTEX MP80 MACHINE

440
 Employ microprocessor technology.
 Feed size : 10 mm –150 mm
 Capacity : Up to 150 tph
 Belt speed : 2.1 m / sec
 At the end of belt, the particles pass through
the viewing zone which is brightly lit by
Quartz – halogen lamp.
 As the mineral particles move across the
viewing zone, it is scanned 1000 times /
sec. The information is fed to the
microprocessor for the decision – making
process. Microprocessor evaluates the
information to decide whether or not to
eject the particle from the stream.441
RTZ Ore Sorter Model 16 Photometric
Sorter

442
 Consists
of a rotating mirror and
photomultiplier.
 High intensity light from the laser is reflected
off the mirror and onto the ore stream. The
light reflected from the particle passes back to
the mirror drum and onto the photomultiplier.
 The laser light beam scans the ore stream 2000
times /sec ( equivalent to one scan every 2mm
of rock length )

443
 InSouth Africa ( Doornfontein gold from quartzite )
(gold id in the white or grey quartz pebbles in a
darker matrix.)
 Used for mostly industrial minerals

Magnesite
Barite
Talc and Wolframite and
Gypsum scheelite from quartz
Limestone

444
 Electronic sorting has a very important use in the
recovery of diamonds. Diamond fluoresce under the
beam of X-rays. Similarly scheelite is sensed by its
fluoorescence under ultra-violet radiation.

445
B- Radiometric Sorting

446
 Electronic sorters are being used to treat
uranium ores. Uranium is a strong emitter of
 - rays , which can be detected by NaI (Th)
scintillation detector placed up to 25 mm
from the rock surface .
 The sorting belt travels at 1 m /sec and any
radioactive material is deflected by a blast
of compressed air. ( Gamma count is
obtained on a rock and it can be interpreted
in terms of the uranium grade of the rock )
Rejection of any piece of ore has an uranium
grade less than the cut – off – grade .
 Machines are available for 50 – 150 mm and
25 – 50 mm feed sizes.
447
 Neutron absorption separation has been used for the
sorting of boron minerals. Neutron capture capacity of
boron atoms are much more than the associated
elements ( neutron absorption is almost proportional to
the boron content of the particles )

448
RTZ Ore Sorter Model 19
(Conductivity/ Magnetic Response Sorter )

449
 It
measures the electrical conductivity and
magnetic susceptibility of individual particles.
 Suitablefor pre – concentration of oxides,
sulphides and native metals.
 Sorter
are suited to feed sizes from 25 mm to
150 mm ( capacities up to 120 tph )

450
451
 PRECON
 Preconcentration device – develop by Qutokumpu
(Finland )
 Used for heterogeneous ores where the average
content of valuable metals is at least 0.4 – 0.5 % and
where there is at least 5 % difference in the sum of
metal content between individual ore and gangue
particles.
 Precon is mostly suitable to chromium, iron, cobalt,
nickel, copper, zinc, or combinations.
 Precon uses  - scattering analysis to evaluate the
sum metal content of the lumps. The measuring
time for each lump being as short as 20 – 50 m / sec.
452
 Asbestos : is detected by its low thermal
conductivity. Sorter uses sequential heating and
infra – red scanning.
 Photoneutron Separation : It is recommended
for sorting of beryllium ores. When beryllium is
exposed  radiation, a photoneutron is
released, and this may be detected by
scintillation counter.

453
SENSING SYSTEMS FOR USE IN ORE SORTING

Mineral Property Detection Device

Optical
Reflectance Photomultiplier
General Photomultiplier
Spesific Photomultiplier
Polarized Photomultiplier
Photometric Photomultiplier
Transparency Photomultiplier
Fluorescence Photomultiplier
Natural Photomultiplier
Chemically induced Photomultiplier
Infrared Infrared scanner 454
Mineral Property Detection Device
X – Ray
Transparency Scintillation counter and pulse height analyzer
Fluorescence (visible) Photomultiplier
Fluorescence (X- Ray) Scintillation counter and pulse height analyzer

Conductivity
Low voltage Photomultiplier

High voltage Scintillation counter and pulse height analyzer

Magnetism Eddy – current type detection

Radioactivity
Natural Scintillation counter and pulse height analyzer

Induced 455
GRAVITY CONCENTRATION
 Gravity concentration methods separate
minerals of different specific gravity.
 They are used to treat a great variaty of
materials [ranging from Au ( sp. gr. 19.3 ) to
coal ( sp. gr. 1.3 ) ]
 Limitations for application :
1. If the sp. gr. difference between the minerals
is less
2. If the liberation is achieved in fine sizes.
3. If high capacity is needed especially in finer
sizes.
4. Low grade and complex ores. 456
 Gravity concentration methods remained, however the main
concentrating methods for iron , tungsten, tin ores and coal.
 Gravity methods are usually preferred to flotation due to its low cost .
Minerals liberated at sizes above flotation range may be concentrated
even more economically using gravity methods (also cause efficient
dewatering due to decreased surface area.)

457
 In recent years, many companies have re – evaluated gravity
systems due to :
1. Increasing cost of flotation reagents
2. Relative simplicity of gravity processes
3. Procedure comparatively little environmental pollution

458
 Uses :
1. To produce final concentrates.
a-) Coarsely liberated mineral
b-) Low value minerals
c-) Those which are not suitable to flotation
d-) Plaser deposits.
2. As pre – concentration
3. To recover residual valuable heavy minerals
in flotation tailings.

459
Principles of Gravity Concentrations

1. It is essential for effective separation that a marked

density difference exists between the mineral and
the gangue.
In order to examine the amenability of
concentration of certain mineral by gravity
concentration methods, Concentration Criteria is
used.

460
 H F
Concentrat ion Criteria 
L F
  H : Sp. gr. of heavy mineral
 L : Sp. gr. of light mineral
 F : Sp. gr. of fluid

461
 If conc. crit. > 3 Gravity sep. is easy in all sizes.
 If conc. crit. > 2 No difficulty, effective
concentration is possible down to the size of fine
sands. Clean concentrate is produced, but it is
difficult to obtain clean tailing. The tonnage of
middling is large.
 If conc. crit. = 2.5 – 1.75 Commercial
separation is possible down to 100 mesh
 If conc. crit. = 1.75 – 1.5 The limit of fineness is
around 10 mesh.
 If conc. crit.  1.25 Gravity separation is not
commercially feasible .The separation is very
difficult even impossible.
462
2. The motion of a particle in a fluid is
dependent not only specific gravity , but
also on its size ( and shape ) . Larger
particles will be affected more than
smaller ones.
The efficiency of gravity processes
increases with particle size and the
particles should be sufficiently coarse to
move in accordance with Newton’s Law.
( coarse particles overcome surface friction
during their movement.)
463
3. Close size control of feeds to gravity processes is required in order
to reduce the size effect and make the relative motion of the
particles specific gravity dependent .(The feed to jigs, cones,
spirals should be screened while in shaking table utilization,
classified feed is fed.)

464
4. It is common practice in most gravity
concentrators to remove particles < 10 m
from the feed, because they are extremely
sensitive to the presence of slime.
5. To minimize degradation of friable minerals, it
should be made reduction of slurry pumping
(as much use of gravitational flow as possible)
6. Correct water balance in gravity circuits is
essential (optimum feed pulp density )
Nucleonic density gauges control the water
addition to the new feed.
465
7. If the ore contains appreciable amount of
sulphide minerals :
a-) If the primary grind is finer than
about 300 m, these should be removed by
flotation prior to gravity concentration ( as
they reduce the performance of spirals,
tables etc.)
b-) If the primary grind is too coarse for
effective sulphide flotation, then the
gravity concentrate must be reground prior
to removal of the sulphides

466
 SizeRanges of Feed in Various Gravity
Separation Applications.
 DMS : Down to 3 mm ( sometimes down to 0.5
mm if centrifuge is applied )
 Jigs: Down to 150 m ( or 75 m ). In both ,
top size  250 mm
 Sluice : 25 mm – 0.25 mm
 Reichert Cone : 3 mm – 30 m ( normal range
100 – 600 m )
 Spiral : 3 mm – 75 m
 ShakingTable : 3 mm – 25 m ( sand table >
100 m )
 Tilting Table : 100 – 5 m 467
HEAVY MEDIUM SEPARATION (HMS) (or
Dense Medium Separation – DMS - )

 HMS is the simplest of all gravity processes and

has long been a standard laboratory method for
separating minerals of different specific gravity.

468
 Industrial Uses :
1. Pre – concentration of minerals ( For metalliferous ores rejection of
gangue prior to final liberation )
2. In coal preparation ( to produce final clean coal )

469
 Advantages :
1. It has ability to make sharp separation at
any required density .
2. It has a high degree of efficiency , even in
the presence of high percentage of near –
density material.
 The process is, however, rather expensive ,
mainly due to the equipment needed for
the regeneration of the medium.

470
 The process is mostly used when the density
difference occurs at a coarse particle size
( Efficiency decreases with the size due to the
slower rate of settling of the particles.) Particles
should be larger than about 3 mm in diameter,
in which case separation can be effective on a
difference in specific gravity of 0.1 or less.
There is no upper size limit.
 Separationdown to 500 m, and less, in size can
be made by the use of centrifugal separators.

471
 HMS is possible with ores in which the minerals
are coarsely aggregated. ( If the values are
finely disseminated throughout the host rock,
suitable density difference between crushed
particles cannot be developed.)

 Heavy liquids are used in the laboratory HMS.

Thick suspensions of fine solids (pulp ) are used
in industrial applications.

472
 THE HEAVY MEDIUM
 LIQUIDS:
 Heavy liquid testing ( Sink – and – Float Process )
may be performed in the laboratory :
1. To determine the feasibility of HMS on a
particular ore.
2. To determine the economic separating density
3. To assess the efficiency of an existing HM circuit
( performance test )
Inorganic salts (ZnCl2, CaCl2)
Liquids used in HMS
Organic liquids 473
Material Chemical Formula Max
sp. gr.
Calcium Chloride CaCl2 1,30
Zinc Chloride ZnCl2 2,07
Carbon Tetra Chloride CCl4 1,59
Methylene bromide CH2 Br2 2,96
Bromoform CH Br3 2,89
Clerici solution CH2 (COOTl )2+HCOOTl 4,20
Tetrabrom Ethane CH2 Br . CBr3 2,96
Sodium Polytungstate 3,1
474
 Aqueous solutions of Na - polytungstate
Density up to 3.1 (Non – volatile , non – toxic)
 Clerici solution (Thallium formate – Thallium
malonate solution)
Density up to 4.2 – Exteremely poisonous
 By the use of Magneto hydrostatics
Density up to 12 (a paramagnetic salt
situated in a magnetic field gradient)
(used for fine size particles of about 50 µm)
 Many organic liquids give off toxic fumes and
must be used with adequate ventilation.
Clerici liquids are extremely poisonous and
must be handled with extreme care. 475
 SUSPENSIONS
 In industrial processes, finely ground solids
suspended in water are used as medium.

 Ifthe concentration of fine solids by volume

< 30% , they behave as simple Newtonian fluids,
but > 30 % by volume the suspension becomes
Non – Newtonian and a certain minimum stress or
yield stress has to be applied before shear will
occur, and the movement of a particle can
commence.

 The shearing force may be increased by applying

centrifugal force. The viscous effect of
suspension may be decreased by agitating the
medium (both will decrease the rigidity of
medium ) 476
 Properties of solids used to produce a stable
suspension :

1. Sufficiently high density

2. Reasonably low viscosity
3. Must be hard with no tendency to slime
4. Must be readily removed from the surfaces
by washing
5. Must be easily and cheaply recoverable
6. Must resist to chemical attack (corrosion)
7. Must not be affected by the constituent of
the ore.
477
Material Max. sp. gr. İn Hardness
solution
Sandstone, 1.58 5–7
quartzite
Barite 2.05 3 – 3.5

Pyrite 2.38 6 – 6.5

Magnetite 2.50 5.5 – 6.5

Galena 4.00 2.5 – 2.75

Ground Fe - Si 3.40 7.3 – 7.6

478
 Galena – Regeneration by flotation
Magnetite – Regeneration by magnetic
separation
Fe – Si - Regeneration by magnetic separation
 Ferrosilicon is an alloy of iron and silicon which
should contain not less than 82 % Fe and
15 – 16 % S.
 If the Si content < 15 %, the alloy will tend to
corrode
 If the Si content > 15 %, the magnetic
susceptibility will be reduced. ( Total losses of
Fe – Si due to losses in the regeneration circuit
as well as corrosion is  0.1 – 2.5 kg / tonne.
479
SEPARATING VESSELS

1. Gravitational (Static baths)

2. Centrifugal (Dynamic)

 In both de – slimed feed is used.

480
GRAVITATIONAL VESSELS (Cones, Drums,
Baths)
 Here, feed and medium are introduced into the vessel by free fall.
 Floats are removed by paddles or by overflow.

481
WEMCO CONE SEPARATOR

482
 Sinks are removed by pump or by external or internal air lift.
 Air lift : The sink drops to the bottom of the cone where it is picked
up by central air –lift which raises the sink to the level of the surface
of the medium and discharges it into the sink launder.
 Wemco cone separator is widely used for ore treatment since it has a
relatively high sinks capacity.

483
 Cone diameter : Up to 6 m Gentle agitation
by rakes to keep
 Feed size : Up to 10 cm the medium in
 Capacity : Up to 500 tph suspension.

484
Drum Separators

Single compartment

485
Double compartment

486
 Removal of the sink product through the
action of lifters. The lifters empty into the
sink launder.

Diameter : Up to 4.3 m
Lenght :6m
Max. capacity : 450 tph
Feed size : Up to 30 cm (usually from 6 mm
to 30 cm)

487
 Advantages :
1. Shallow pool depth in the drum minimises
settling out of the medium particles giving a
uniform gravity throughout the drum.
2. Simple, reliable and low maintenance cost.

 Two – compartment drum separator provides

three products. The lighter medium in the
first compartment separates a pure float
product. In the second compartment true
sinks and middlings are separated.
488
 Althoughdrum separators have very large
sink capacities, (more suited to the
treatment of metallic ores which have sink
product normally 60 – 80 % of the feed ),
they are usually used in the coal industry
because of their simplicity and reliability.

489
Drewboy Bath

490
 It has high floats capacity.
 The sinks are lifted out from the bottom of the
bath by a radial – vaned wheel mounted on an
inclined shaft.
 The medium is fed into the bath
1. At the bottom of the vessel
2. With the raw coal

 Tesca bath : With straight wheel and for high

sinks capacity.
491
Norwalt Washer

492
 Developed in South Africa to wash the coal.
 Feedis introduced into the center of the
annular separating vessel with stirring arms.
 Thefloats are carried round by stirrers and
discharged over a weir on the other side of
the vessel.
 Thesink is dragged along by scrapers and
discharged into an elevator (wheel type).

493
CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATORS

 DSM cyclones
 Vorsyl separator
 Larcodems
 Dyna Whirlpool
 Tri – flo separator

494
HEAVY MEDIUM CYCLONES

 Used both to clean ores and coals.

 They provide high centrifugal force and low

viscosity in the medium, enabling much finer
separations to be achieved than in
gravitational separators.

 Feed is deslimed at about 0.5 mm (in recent

years, the feed size is lowered as fine as 0.1
mm ) . In United States, HMS with no
desliming has been performed.
495
DSM cyclone (Dutch State Mines)

 Used to treat ores and coals in the size range

40 – 0.5 mm.
 The ore is suspended in a very fine medium of
Fe – Si or magnetite.
 The sink product leaves the cyclone in the
apex, while the floats product is discharged
via the central vortex finder.

496
 Water – only – cyclone
( Autogenous dense medium cyclone)
 The design differs from conventional dense
medium cyclone or a classification
hydrocyclone:

 The cone is much larger (up to 120), and the

vortex finder is much longer, in some instances
extending into the conical region.

 Itis thought that fine particles of high and

intermediate density collect and recirculate in
the conical section, forming an autogenous
dense medium through which only particles of
greater density can pass. 497
 The use of water only cyclones is becoming
widespread in cleaning of coal in the 600 – 150 µm
size range.
 Advantages :
1. Lower capital cost
2. Lower operating cost (as the elimination of
medium) (no regeneration)

498
VORSYL SEPARATOR

499
 Used for the treatment of small coal sizes up
to about 50 mm. Capacity is up to 120 tph.

 De– slimed raw coal with medium

(magnetite) is introduced tangentially.

 Material of specific gravity < medium passes

into the clean coal outlet.

 Near gravity material and heavy shale

particles move to the wall of the vessel due
to the centrifugal acceleration induced.
500
 Heavy particles move in a spiral path down
the chamber towards the base of the vessel
where the drag caused by the proximity of
the orifice plate reduces the tangential
velocity and creates a strong inward flow
towards the throat.

 This carries heavy and near gravity material

into the shallow shale chamber which is
connected by a short duct to a second
chamber (vortex tractor) through a tangential
inlet.

 Such an inward spiral flow permits the use of

a large diameter outlet nozzle without the
passing of an excessive quantity of medium.
501
DYNA WHIRLPOOL SEPARATOR

502
 Used for treating fine coal as well as minerals
(diamond, fluorspar, tin and lead-zinc ores).

 Size of feed : 0.5 – 30 mm

 Capacity : 100 tph

503
 Unit is operated in an inclined position.
 Medium is pumped under pressure into the
lower end. Rotating medium creates a vortex.
 Float particles passes down the vortex and
does not contact the outer walls of the unit,
thus reducing wear.
 Heavy sink particles of the feed penetrate the
rising medium towards the outher wall of the
unit and discharged through the sink
discharge pipe.

504
 Since the sink discharge is close to the feed
inlet, the sinks are removed from the unit
immediately, again reducing wear
considerably. (Length of flexible hose
connected to sink pipe is used to control back
pressure to control the cut-point.

 Advantages :
1. Less wear, less maintenance cost
2. Lower operating cost (since only medium is
pumped)
3. Can accept large fluctuations in sink / float
rations.

 Dyna Whirlpool Separator has a much higher

sinks capacity. 505
LARCODEMS (Large
Coal Dense Medium Separator)

506
 Develop for raw coal up to 100 mm in one
vessel.
 The unit consists of a cyclindrical chamber
which is inclined at approximately 30 to the
horizontal.

Diameter : 1.2 m
Length :3m
Capacity : 250 tph
Feed : 100 mm – 0.5 mm

507
 Medium is fed (introduced) under pressure at
the lower end, feed is fed at the top end.
 At the top end, another tangential outlet
connected to vortex tractor.
 Clean coal after separation is removed
through the bottom outlet.
 High specific gravity particles pass rapidly to
the separator wall and are removed through
vortex tractor.

508
TYPICAL DYNA WHIRLPOOL PROCESS FLOW CIRCUIT
(Regeneration of Magnetic Medium)

509
 Fe– Si losses can account for 10 -35 % of the
total operating cost of HMS plant.

 Magnetic losses  0,5 -1,5 kg / t

510
TRI – FLO SEPARATOR

511
 Can be regarded as two Dyna Whirlpool
Separators joined in series.
 Used for coal, metalliferous and non-metallic
ores.
 Tri – flo separator can be operated with two
media of differing densities, or single medium
density for two- stage treatment.
 Single medium with two stage treatment
(scavenger). Float of the first unit is treated
again to remove clean float (in metalliferous).

512
 In Italy, by using 2 different density medium,
it treats +1 mm fluorspar – galena ore.
 High sp. gr. medium : 3.2
Low sp. gr. medium : 2.75

 Sink 1 : 41.5 % Pb
40 % CaF2
RPb : 90.3 %
Sink 2 : 91.8 % CaF2
0.46 % Pb
RCaF2 : 90 % 513
 Two – stages of separation increase the
sharpness of separation.

 Size of Tri – Flo unit : 250 mm – 500 mm in 

 Capacities : 15 tph – 90 tph

514
Laboratory HEAVY Liquid Tests ( Sink
and Float Test)

515
516
 Purposes:

1. To determine the feasibility of a particular

ore to HMS ( Washability Curves)
2. Determination of economic separating
density
3. To determine the performance of an
existing plant.

517
518
 Individual Particles Cumulative Float Cumulative S,ink Ordiin
Sp.Gr. ate
Wt.% Ash Ash Cum. Ash Aver. Cum. Ash Aver.
Axis
% Cont. Wt. Cont.t Ash Wt6. Cont. Ash
% % % % a/2+b
a
b
-1,35 8,59 3,31 28,43 8,59 28,43 3,31 100, 1481,6 14,8 4,29
0 2 2
1,35/1,4 7,10 4,42 31,38 15,6 59,81 3,81 91,4 1453,1 15,9 12,14
0 9 1 9 0
1,40/1,4 23,73 5,56 131,9 39,4 191,75 4,86 84,3 1421,8 16,8 27,55
5 4 2 1 1 6
1,45/1,5 17,88 7,48 133,7 57,3 325,49 5,68 60,5 1289,8 21,2 48,36
0 4 0 8 7 9
1,50/1,5 16,98 10,87 184,5 74,2 510,06 6,87 42,7 1156,1 27,0 65,79
5 7 8 0 3 8
1,55/1,6 4,45 14,27 63,50 78,7 573,56 7,28 25,7 971,56 37,7 76,50
0 3 2 7
1
1,60/1,7 2
2,69 3
19,08 4
51,32 5
81,4 6
624,88 7
7,67 8
21,2 9
908,06 10
42,6 11
80,07
0 2 7 9
519
1,70/1,8 2,14 23,99 51,34 83,5 676,22 8,09 18,5 856,74 46,1 82,49
Washability Curves of Çanakkale – Çan Lignite
ground to minus 0,5 mm size

520
 1 – Cum. Float Ash(Cum.wt.%float vs.aver. Ash%
of float)
2 – Cum. Sink Ash ( Cum. wt % sink vs. average
ash % of sink)
3 – Elementary Ash (Individual ash % vs. New
ordinate)
4 – Sp. Gr. Curve ( Cum. float wt. vs. sp. gr. )
5 - ± 0,10 sp. gr Distribution

PROBLEM: A tin ore will be precontrated by DMS.The maximum allowable

loss in the tailing is 4 %.
a)What is be the original Sn % of the ore?
b )What will be the separating density?
c) What is the Sn grade of tailing ?
d)What is the Sn content of the preconcentrated feed?521
 To determine Economic Separating Density

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Specific % Cumulative Assay 2 * 4 Distribution Cumulative
gravity Weight % weight (%Sn) (%Sn) distribution
fraction (%Sn)
-2,55 1,57 1,57 0,03 0,047 0,04 0,04
2,55-2,60 9,22 10,79 0,04 0,369 0,33 0,37
2,60-2,65 26,11 36,90 0,04 1,044 0,93 1,30
2,65-2,70 19,67 56,57 0,04 0,787 0,70 2,00
2,70-2,75 11,91 68,48 0,17 2,025 1,81 3,81
2,75-2,80 10,92 79,40 0,34 3,713 3,32 7,13
2,80-2,85 7,87 87,27 0,37 2,912 2,60 9,73
2,85-2,90 2,55 89,82 1,30 3,315 2,96 12,69
+2,90 10,18 100,00 9,60 97,72 87,31 100,00
8
1,11 111,940
522
Solution:
a) The original Sn % of the ore is:111.940/100=1.11 % Sn
b) The separating Density is 2.75 .(The loss of Sn is 3.81 which is lower than 4%)
c) Total content of Sn in the float(tailing)/Total weight of float=Sn grade of
float
4.272/68.48=0.06 % Sn
d)Total content of Sn in the sink(preconcentrated feed)/Total weight % of
sink=Sn % of sink
107.668/31.52= 3.42 % Sn

In a continuously operating process, particles with a high and low specific gravity
in comparison with the medium are least affected. e. i. they will go either float
or sink. Particles with specific gravity approaching that of the medium may not
have time to reach sink (or float) and will be misplaced into the other product.

 Particles with the same sp. gr. as the medium have an equal chance of
reporting to the sink or float product. Efficiency of separation therefore varies
ranging from 100 % to 50 %.

 The difficulty or ease of separation is dependent on the amount of material

present in the feed which is close to the required density of
523
separation . The
amount of near gravity material present is the weight of material in ±0,10
range of the separating density.
PARTITION – TROMP CURVE

 Theefficiency of a particular separating

process depends on its ability to separate
material of sp. gr. close to the medium.

 Theefficiency of separations can be

represented by the slope of a Partition, or
Tromp Curve, whatever the quality of feed,
can be used to estimate the performance.

524
PARTITION COEFFICIENT
 The percentage of the feed material of a particular
sp gr which reports to the sink.

 Effective density of separation : Density at which 50

% of the particles report to the sink. 525
 The probable error of separation = Ecart probable (E P)

d 75  d 25
EP  or,
2
A B
EP 
2

 Thelower the EP , the nearer to vertical is the line

between 25 % and 75 %, and the more efficient is the
separation.
 An ideal separation , EP = 0
In practice , EP = 0,02 – 0,08 526
 d 75  d 25
I  Imperfecti on 
2d 50

E is commonly used as a method of assessing

P
the efficiency of separation in units such as HMS
process but not as spirals, tables etc. due to
the many operating variables which can affect
the separation efficiency. (HMS is simple and
reproducible ).

527
 The partition curve can be used to predict the products that
would be obtained if the feed or separation gravity were
changed. The curves are specific to the vessel for which they
were established and are not affected by the type of material
fed to it, provided:

A)The feed size range is the same(efficiency drops with

size).Below 10mm,centrifugal separators are better than
baths.

B)The separating gravity is in appr the same range. The higher

the effective separation density, the greater the probable
error, due to the increased medium viscosity. E P is directly
proportional to the separation density, all other factors being
the same.
C)Feed rate is the same.

PROBLEM: Find the partition coefficient(performance) of a DMS

devise whose float is the 82.60 % of the feed (by weight).
528
 Construction of Partition Curves
Specific (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
gravity Floats Sink Floats Sinks Reconstituted Nominal Partition
fraction analysis analysis % of % of feed (%) sp gr coefficient
(wt % ) (wt %) feed feed (4/5 x 100
%)
-1,30 83,34 18,15 68,83 3,15 71,98 - 4,39
1,30- 10,50 10,82 8,67 1,89 10,56 1,35 17,80
1,40
1,40- 3,35 9,64 2,77 1,68 4,45 1,45 37,75
1,50
1,50- 1,79 13,33 1,48 2,32 3,80 1,55 61,05
1,60
1,60- 0,30 8,37 0,25 1,46 1,71 1,65 85,38
1,70
1,70- 0,16 5,85 0,13 1,02 1,15 1,75 88,70
1,80
1,80- 0,07 5,05 0,06 0,88 0,94 1,85 93,62
1,90 529
 Theprobable error of separation of an
operating heavy medium vessel can be
determined by sampling the sink and float
products and performing (float and sink) test
to determine the amount of misplaced
material in each of the products.

530
 Scale of values of Near-Gravity Material
(Difficulty of the separation)
Wt. % Separatio Gravity Process Type
within ± 0,1 n Problem Recommended
gravity of
separation
0-7 Simple Almost any process Jigs, tables,
spirals
7-10 Moderatly Efficient process Sluices,
difficult cones, HMS
10-15 Difficult Efficient process with
good operating
15-25 Very Very efficient process HMS
difficult with expert
operation
Above 25 Formidable Limited to a few 531 HMS with
exceptionally close control
efficient processes
 Actual yield
Organic Efficiency 
Theoretica l yield

 e. g. If the coal is produced with an operating

yield of 51 % at an ash content of 12 %, and if
the theoretical yield at this ash content is 55
%, the organic efficiency is equal to :
51
 92,7%
55
532
533
534
Sp gr (1) Float (2) Sink (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
fraction analysis analysis Floats Sinks Reconstitute Partition Nominal
(wt %) (wt %) % of % of d feed (%) coefficient sp gr
feed feed (%)
-1,30 38,84 - 16,24 - 16,24 0 -

1,30-1,35 35,44 0,21 14,82 0,12 14,94 0,8 1,325

1,35-1,40 15,12 0,48 6,32 0,28 6,60 4,2 1,375
1,40-1,45 7,03 1,44 2,94 0,84 3,78 22,2 1,425
1,45-1,50 2,68 3,19 1,12 1,86 2,98 62,41 1,475
1,50-1,55 0,34 2,71 0,14 1,58 1,72 91,86 1,525
1,55-1,60 0,33 5,82 0,14 3,39 3,53 96,03 1,575
1,65-1,70 0,07 2,35 0,03 1,37 1,40 97,85 1,675
1,17-1,75 0,09 3,60 0,04 2,09 2,13 98,12 1,725
+1,75 - 78,12 - 45,4 45,44 100 -
4
Total 100 100 41,852 58,1 100
8 535
 Ash % Feed : 47,51 %
Ash % Sink : 75,19 %
Ash % Float : 14,01 %

Feed ( wt %) = Float (%) + Sink (%)

Ash content of feed = Ash content of float + Ash content of sink
100 x 47,51 = Float x 14,01 + (100 – float) x 75,19
Float :41,82 %
Sink : 58,18 %

536
JIGGING
 The jig is normally used to concentrate
relatively coarse material. Good separation is
possible if the feed is closely sized (e.g. 3 –
10) and if the sp. gr. difference is large.
 Many large jig circuits are still operated in
the coal, cassiteriite, tungsten, gold, barytes
and iron-ore industries.

 Jigshave a relatively high unit capacity and

can achieve good recovery of values down to
150 µm and acceptable recoveries often down
to 75 µm. (High proportions of fines interfere
with performance.)
537
 Jigging is the stratification of minerals of
different sp. gr.
 The separation is accomplished in a bed
which is rendered fluid by a pulsating current
of water so as to produce stratification.
 The aim is to dilate the bed of material being
treated and to control the dilation so that
the heavier, small particles penetrate the
interstices of the bed and the larger high sp
gr particles fall under a condition probably
similar to hindered settling.
538
 On the pulsion stroke, the bed is normally lifted as a mass , the
bottom particles falling first until the whole bed is loosened.
 On the suction stroke, it then closes slowly again and this is repeated
at every stroke; the frequency varying between 55 – 330 cycle / min.

539
 The fine particles tend to pass through the
interstices after the large ones have
become immobile. The motion can be
obtained either by using a fixed sieve jig
and pulsating the water, or by employing a
moving sieve in a simple hand- jig.

540
 The Jigging Action

 The motion of a particle settling in a viscous

fluid is : dv '
m  m g  m  g  R
dt

mass  accelerati on  mass solid  gr. ac. - mass displacedfluid  gr. ac. - R
R  Fluid resistance due to the particle movement

541
 Atthe beginning of the particle movement, since
the velocity is very small, R can be ignored as it is a
function of velocity.

dv  mm 
'
    g
dt  m 

 Volume of particle and displaced fluid are of equal

volume.
dv   s   f   f 
    g  1    g
dt   s   s 
 s  Sp. gr. solid
 f  Sp. gr. fluid 542
 The initial acceleration of the particle is
independent of size and dependent only on
the densities of the solid and the fluid.

 If the duration of fall is short enough, the

total distance travelled by the particles will
be affected more by the differential initial
acceleration, and therefore by density than by
their terminal velocities, and therefore by
size.

 To separate small heavy mineral particles

from large light particles, a short jigging cycle
is necessary.
543
 More control and better stratification can be achieved by using
longer, slower strokes, especially with the coarser particle sizes.
 It is good practice to screen the feed to jigs into different size ranges
and to treat them separately.

544
 Ifthe mineral particles are examined after a
longer time, they will have attained their
terminal velocities and will be moving at a rate
dependent on their sp gr and size.
 Since the bed is really a very thick suspension
of high density (loosely packed mass with
interstitial water), hindered settling conditions
prevail. 545
 The upward flow can be adjusted so that it
overcomes the downward velocity of the fine
light particles and carries them away, thus
achieving separation .
 Hindered settling has a marked effect on the
separation of coarse minerals, for which
longer, slower strokes should be used.

546
 Atthe end of pulsion stroke , as the bed
begins to compact, the larger particles
interlock, allowing the smaller grains to move
downwards through the interstices under the
influence of gravity (consolidation trickling).

547
548
 Inthe jig , the movement of the piston is a
harmonic waveform

549
 Thespeed of flow through bed during jig
cycle is sine – curve.

550
 Point A : Upward flow increases, the bed is
forced to open or dilate.
B : Hindered settling phase (particles
move according to mass)
C : Fine grains are pushed upwards
by the flow
D : The coarser grains will fall back
E : Bed will be compacted.
Consolidation trickling now occur.

551
 Severecompaction of the bed can be
reduced by the addition of hutch water
(which creates a constant upward flow
through the bed). Thus, suction is reduced
by hutch water.

552
TYPES of JIG

 Modern jigs employ a stationary screen

and pulse the water flow through it.
 The significant variations between the
various types of modern jig therefore
become :
1. The method used to cause the pulsation
2. The method of withdrawing the dense
mineral product.

553
 The tank or hutch is divided into 2 main
sections: One containing the screen, the
other where the fluid pulse is generated.

 In Denver : Diaphragm generate the water

pulsions
In Harz : Plunger generate pulsions
In Baum : Air pressure generate the water
pulsions.
554
 2 – main methods of dense mineral removal
can be employed :

1. Over the screen jigging : Dense mineral

discharges under a suitable weir, while the
lighter mineral overflows a different weir.

2. Through the screen jigging : Dense mineral

particles fall into the hutch where they are
withdrawn by a spiral or bucket elevator.

555
HARZ JIG (Over the screen type)
 Oldest type. Plunger moves up and down vertically
in a separate compartment.
 Four successive compartments are placed in series.
 A high grade concentrate is produced in the 1.
compartment
 Tailing is overflowing the final compartment.

556
DENVER MINERAL JIG (Through the
screen type)

557
 Mostly used for removing heavy minerals from
closed grinding circuits, thus preventing
overgrinding.
 The rotary valve can be adjusted so as to
open at any desired part of the jig cycle
(synchronisation between the valve and the
diaphragm)
 By suitable adjustment of the valve, even
complete neutralisation of the suction stroke
with hydraulic water can be achieved.

558
 Ragging : Coarse, heavy particles placed on
the jig screen if dense minerals have smaller
sizes than the aperture of the screen.
 Ragging mineral can be denser or less denser
than the dense mineral.

 Generally, the ragging material is evenly

sized. The feed flows across the ragging.
Grains with high sp gr penetrate through the
ragging and screen and is drawn off as
concentrate from the hutch.

559
 CIRCULAR or RADIAL JIG

 Itis designed (developed) to compensate for the

increase in cross – flow velocity over the jig bed,
caused by the addition of hutch water.
 Feed is introduced in the centre and flows radially
over the jig bed towards the tailing discharge at
the circumference.

560
561
 Example : Cleaveland – IHC Jig (For minerals)

 Design features are :

1. It is a circular jig in plain view
2. The jig compartment are trapezoidal to reduce the
effect of excessive top water.
3. Radial arrangement of the jig compartment saves
space, provides for simplified feed distribution and
allows the use of a raking device which levels the jig
bed surface as it rotates.
4. Has very large capacity (For 7,5 m diameter, 10
tph/m2 or 41,7 m2 gives 417 tph). Feed size : Max.
25 mm 562
 In Malaysia and Thailand, it is used for the
treatment of Au, diamonds, iron ore etc.

 In IHC and Denver Jigs, the harmonic motion

of the conventional jig piston is replaced by
an asymmetrical saw – tooth movement of
the diaphragm, with a rapid- short upward,
followed by a slow- long downward stroke.

563
 This gives the finer particles more time to settle
in the bed, thus reducing their loss.(Jig being
capable of accepting particles as fine as 60 µm.

564
 Remer Jig

 Allfour
compartments are
actuated by a
common
mechanism.
(Moving hutch)

565
COAL JIGS (Air Pulsated)

 Coaljigs are preferred to the more expensive

Heavy Medium Process when the coal has
relatively little near – gravity material.

566
567
Baum Jig

568
 By using air , more suitable pulsation cycles can be
achieved.
 To supplement the pulsion action and maintain the
bed in an open state for a longer time, additional
water is fed to the hutch when the bed is settling
(the downward or suction stroke).
 It consists of a sloping screen surface. A number of
pockets occur along the surface for the removal of
dense material. The refuse discharge is
automatically controlled (Automatic refuse
extractor). It consists of a float immersed in the
bed.
 An increase in the depth of refuse raises the float,
which automatically controls the refuse discharge,
by adjusting the height of the moving gate.
569
 Baum jig can handle large tonnages up to
1000 tph, with a wide size range. However,
the distribution of the stratification force,
being on one side of the jig , tends to cause
unequal force along the width of the jig
screen.
 Uneven stratification due to the unequal
stratification force causes some loss in the
efficiency of separation of the coal from its
heavier impurities.

570
Batac Jig

571
 It has no side air chamber like the Baum Jig.
It is designed with a series of multiple air
chambers, usually two to a cell, extending
under the jig screen for its full width, thus
giving uniform air distribution.

 The jig uses electronically controlled air

valves which provide sharp cut – off of the air
input and exhaust.Both inlet and outlet valves
are indefinetly variable with regard to the
length of stroke so that proper stratification
may be achieved. Therefore, Batac Jig can
wash both coarse and fine sizes well.

572
 As, there is no adjacent chamber, it can be
designed with wider beds that permit higher
throughput in a given space.

 Raw coal is fed across the full width of the jig

bed No: 1. Pulsation in the first 2 – cell
separate coal and middlings from coarse
refuse. The layer of heavy refuse serves as a jig
bed.The bed depth of the two – cell is adjusted
automatically to open discharge gate.

573
 Cells 3 and 4 have feldspar beds to carry coal,
middlings and fine refuse from cell 2. The fine
refuse sifts down through the bed and screen.
Cell 5 operates like cell 2, with coarse
midlings serving as the jig bed and than
discharges at the end of this cell.

 Jig normally operates at 60 impulses / minute.

The jigging air required is at 6,5 psi pressure.
 Finer middlings and clean coal pass into the
cell 6 which has feldspar bed.Fine middlings
sift down through the bed and screen, leaving
clean coal to overflow final cell.
574
SLUICES – PINCHED SLUICES

 The Sluices Box : is an

inclined trough through
which feed is washed after
removing large pieces by
means of grizzly or
trommel.

 Riffles are placed in the

bottom in order to create
bed turbulence, establish a
hindered settling zone.
575
 Operation is intermittent to remove concentrate and other products.
(Starting from the end, the content is raked against the flow and riffles
are gradually removed to remove concentrate).

576
 Pinched Sluices
It is an inclined trough about 1m long, 20
cm in width at the feed end, and 2,5 cm at
the discharge. Concentrate is discharged
continuously. No riffle at the bottom.

577
 Pulp density : 50 – 60 % solids by weight.
 Feed size : 10 mesh (1,68 mm) - 37µm.
 Throughput : 4 – 10 tph depending on particle size.
 Slope :  15 

578
REICHERT CONE

 Itis a wet pre – concentrating device based

or flowing film.
 Has a high capacity, normally in the range
65 – 90 tph, but in exceptional cases 40 –
100 tph.
 Feed density : 55 – 70 % solids by weight
(Fluctuation in density affects the efficient
of separation)
 Feed size : Up to 3 mm, can treat as fine as
30 µm. Most efficient in the 100 – 600 µm.

579
 Reichert cone has similar operational
principle to that of pinched sluice, but it
has no wall effect to generate turbulance
(the pulp flow is not restricted by side –
wall effect).
 Cone gives sharper separations than a
pinched sluice.
 Reichert Cone was developed in Australia
to treat titanium bearing beach sands.
580
581
 The cones are made of fiberglass.It is
mounted in a circular frames over 6 m high.
 Each cone is 2 m diameter. There are no
moving part.
 Single unit is consisted of double and single
cones, together with trays (for rougher
concentration, four double – single cone in
series).

582
 The feed is distributed around the periphery
of the cone.
 Heavy particles separate to the bottom of
the film as the pulp flows towards the centre
of the cone. Concentrate is removed by an
annular slot of the concentrating cone.
Tailing is flowing over the slot.
 Pinched sluices and cones have relatively low
upgrading ratios. The products is retreated in
cleaner and scavenger circuits.

583
584
585
 Reichert Cone is used for preconcentration of
tin, gold, tungsten, magnetite.
 Cones, due to their high capacities and low
operating costs, have replaced spirals and
shaking tables.
 In South Africa, 68 Reichert Cones treat 34000
tph to treat flotation tailings.The feed is
upgraded of about 200:1, then is further
cleaned on shaking tables to produce final
concentrate.

586
HUMPHREYS SPIRAL

587
 Used first chromite concentration.
 Most extensive usage has been in the
treatment of heavy mineral sand deposits
such as ilmenite, rutile, zircone,
monazite.
 It
is composed of a helical conduit of
modified semi-circular cross-section.
 Feed pulp : 15 – 45 % solids by weight.
 Feed size : 3 mm – 75 µm.
588
 The particles stratify due to the combined
effect of ;

1. Centrifugal force
2. Differential settling rates of particles
3. The effect of interstitial trickling through the
flowing particle bed.

 Hindered settling is also effective.

589
 Ports for the removal of heavier particles are
located at the lowest points in the cross –
section. Wash water flows outwardly across
the concentrate band to clean the
concentrate.
 The grade of concentrate taken from the
descending ports progressively decreases.
 Tailing is discharged from the lower end of
the spiral.

590
 By the development of spiral technology,
new spirals are introduced as;

1. With only one concentrate take – off, at the

bottom of the spiral
2. Without added wash water (Lower cost, easy
operating, simple maintenance) used for Au,
Tin.

 To treat fine coal, specifically designed

spirals are introduced ( 0,2 – 1 mm).
591
 Double
– spiral concentrators have two starts around a
common column.

 InCanada, 4000 double start spirals are used to clean

hematite ore at 5000 tph capacity at 90 % recovery.

 Spiralsare made with slopes of varying steepness the

angle effecting the specific gravity.

 Shallow angles are used, e.i. to treat coal (1 – 3 tph)

 Steeper angles are used to treat minerals (2 – 6 tph)

 Spiral Length : 5 or more turns for rougher

3 for cleaner
592
SHAKING TABLES

593
 It is the most efficient gravity concentrator.
 It is principle of working is based on flowing film.

 When a flowing film of water flows over a flat

inclined surface, the water closest to the bottom is
retarded by the friction of water adsorbed on the
surface.

 Ifminerals are introduced into the film, small

particles will not move as rapidly as large
particles, as they will be submerged in the slower
moving portion of the film.

 Particles of high specific gravity will move more

slowly than lighter particles, lateral displacement
will be produced. 594
 Feed : Classified feed (coarser light, small dense).
Pulp density : 25 % solids by weight.

 Water is flowing down, across the riffles.

 Table is vibrated longitudinally – Using slow
forward stroke and rapid turn.(mineral particles
crawl along the deck)

Deck : Inclined, with riffles on it, parallel to the

long axis.
Riffles : Tapered from a maximum height on the
feed side. (Vertical stratification behind the
riffles)
595
 Particles are subjected to 2 – forces:
1. Due to the table motion (asymmetrical
acceleration move along the direction of motion)
2. Due to the flowing film of water (flowing film,
hindered settling, consolidation trickling)
 These forces are perpendicular to each other.

 The smaller, denser particles riding the highest

towards the concentrate launder at far end.
 Larger light particles are washed into the tailings
launder.
596
 Riffles: Run parallel with the long axis of the
table. Tapered from a maximum height on the
feed side, till die out near the opposite side.

 Vertical stratification takes place behind the

riffles, so that the finest and heaviest
particles are at the bottom and the coarsest
and lighest particles are at the top. (the finer
sized and higher density particles are
protected behind the riffles).

 Final concentration takes place at the

unriffled area at the end of the deck.
597
598
Variables of Shaking Table
 Design Variables :

1. Table shape
2. Table surface material ( Table : wood,
Lining : Linoleum, rubber, plastic with a high
coefficient of friction, fiberglass)
3. Shape of riffles
4. Pattern of riffles
5. Feed presentation
599
 Operating variables :

1. Table tilt (desk slope)

2. Pulp density of feed ( 20 – 25 % solid by wt for
ore, 30 – 35 % solid by wt for coal)
3. Feed rate
4. Wash water
5. Position of product splitter.
6- Running speed : Motor speed , Pulley size
Stroke : Toggle or vibrator settling
Length of stroke : 10 – 25 mm
Number of stroke : 240 – 325 srokes / min.
Amplitude : Handwheel
600
 Particle size plays important role in table separation.
 The efficiency of separation decreases with the
increase in size.
 Capacity : 2 tph for 1,5 mm sand
(per deck) 1 tph for fine sand
0,5 tph for 100 – 150 µm feed
Ore
cleani
ng
12,5 tph for -5 mm
(may be up to 15 mm) Coal cleaning

601
 Double and triple deck units has improved the
area / capacity ratio.
 Fine feed requires a higher speed and shorter
stroke.
 Coarse feed requires a slower speed and
longer stroke.
 Table slope varies with feed size and it is
greatest for the coarsest and highest gravity
feeds.
 Normal end elevations in ore tabling range
from a maximum of 90 mm for a heavy,
coarse sand, to as little as 6 mm for an
extremely fine feed.
602
 USES:

Tin
 Ore
Iron
concentrating
Tungsten
tables are used
primarily for
Barium
Titanium
Zirconium

 Coal washing Especially in U.S.A

( 45 million tons of
metallurgical coal)
603
 Since the shaking table effectively separates
coarse light from fine dense particles, it is
common practice to classify the feed.
 Classification is usually performed in multi –
spigot hydrosizers in order to feed as narrow
a size range on to the table.
 Each spigot is fed to a separate shaking table.
 Sand Tables : Riffled tables : Operate on feed
sizes in the range 3 mm to 100 µm.
 Slime Tables : For -100 µm sizes.

604
Typical Shaking Table Concentrator Flowsheet

605
Pneumatıc Tables

 Used where water is at a premium (eg in the

upgrading of asbestos, for seed separation; for
heavy mineral sand deposits)
 Pneumatic tables use a throwing motion to
move the feed along a flat riffle deck, and blow
air continuously up through a porous bed.

606
 The stratification produced is somewhat
different from that of wet tables.
 In wet tables, the particle size increases and
the density decreases from the concentrate
band to the tailing band.
 On air table, both particle size and density
decrease from the top down (similar to
hydraulic classification)

607
Bartles – Mozley Tables

 Used for the recovery of very small particles.

 Feed size : -100 µm +5 µm (for Au and Pt, down

to 1 µm)

 Feed rates : Over 5 tph

608
 The flowing – film thickness is  0,5 – 1 mm
(means that for a 100 µm particle, it is 10
times ; for 5 µm paticle, 200 times)

 Separation is based on the fact that a

suspension of particles is subjected to
continuous shear due to the forward motion
of film across the surface, or movement of
the surface. The concentrator uses orbital
motion to develop shear in the bed.

 Bartles – Mozley tables consists of 40

fiberglass decks, each 1,1 m wide by 1,5 m
long, arranged in two sandwiches, each of 20
decks. 609
 Each deck is smooth and attached to its
neighbours by 12 mm thick plastic formers
which serve as pulp channel.
 The deck assemblies are supported on two
suspension cables at a 1 -3 angle to the
horizontal, within a free – standing steel
framework.
 An integral drive assembly is located
between 2 – deck sandwiches.

610
 Operation:

1. The feed is distributed evenly to all 40 decks

through a piping system, for a period of 35
minutes.
2. The feed is automatically interrupted, with
simultaneous tilting of the table by an air
cylinder to drain tailing, then further tilting
to about 45 for washing cycle.
3. Low – pressure water is fed to remove the
original.
4. The deck is returned automatically to the
original position, wash water valve is shut
off and feed valve opened to commence the
next cycle.
611
 Bartles – Mozley tables is a semi – continuous
device.It is used for pre – concentration rather
than the production of the final concentrate
(roughing or scavenging device).

 Itis initially developed for the concentration

of fine cassiterite but is also used for the
recovery of fine mineral from old mine dumps.

612
Bartles – Cross Belt Separator

 It was introduced to upgrade Bartles –

Mozley concentrate.
 It consists of a 2,4 m wide endless PVC
belt, whose top surface is inclined from a
central longitudinal ridge towards both
side edges. Belt moves slowly over drive
and head pulley, a rotating out – of
balance weight imparting orbital motion
to the belt. The belt assembly is
suspended freely from the main frame by
4 wires.
613
 The feed is introduced along the first half of
the length. Heavy particles are deposited on
the belt while light particles (gangue), held in
suspension by the orbital shear, flows down
the belt.

 The concentrate travels sideways with the

belt through cleaning zone where middling
particles are washed down to a middling
launder.

 Finallythe clean concentrates are discharged

over the head pulley.
614
 FLOTATION
 Flotation is the most important mineral
processing technique.

 Flotation has permitted :

1. The mining of low grade deposits would have
2. The mining of complex ore bodies been
regarded as
3. Ores that require fine grinding to
uneconomi
achieve liberation
c
4. To treat greater tonnages.
615
 Uses :
Complex sulphide ores (Cu – Fe – Pb – Zn , Au , Ag)
Oxides , oxidised heavy metals (Hematite, malachite,
smithsonite)
Non – metalic minerals (CaF2 , BaSO4, phosphates)

 Froth flotation utilises the differences in physico –

chemical surface properties of various minerals. Such
differences in surface properties become appearent
by the interaction of chemical reagents with the
mineral particles. (To make one selectively
hydrophobic and to separate it by the adherence of
this specific particle to air bubble and then to rise to
the surface in the form of froth) 616
 3 phases in froth flotation:

1. Solid phase (fine ore particles)

2. Liquid phase (water)
3. Gaseous phase (air)

617
 The particles which have been rendered hydrophobic.
(Water repellent : Air avid)
 Hydrophilic (water wetted) particle which leaves in
the pulp.
 Most minerals are naturally hydrophilic.
To achieve a separation by flotation, the surfaces of
one mineral must be selectively rendered hydrophobic.
618
 Direct Flotation : Valuable mineral is
transferred to the froth, leaving the gangue
in the pulp.

 Reverse Flotation : Gangue is floated while

leaving the valuable mineral in the pulp.

619
 Flotation can only be applied to relatively
fine particles. The total density of air bubble
and attached particles < 1.

 The wettability of a surface is expressed in

terms of contact angle which is formed
between 3 – phase contact. The air – bubble
can stick to the mineral particles if they can
displace water from the mineral surface.(If
the mineral surface is hydrophobic or water
repellent)

620
 s / a   s / w   a / w  cos 
 a / w  cos    s / a   s / w
Ws / a   a / w   s / w   s / a 621
W = Work of adhesion = The force required
s/a
to break the particle bubble interface.
W = Work required to separate the solid/air
s/a
interface and produce separate air/water and
solid/water interfaces.

Ws / a   a / w   s / a   s / w 
 s / a   s / w   a / w  cos  so;
Young' s Equation is
Ws / a   a / w 1  cos  
622
 Thegreater the contact angle, the greater is
the work of adhesion.
If   0 , cos  1
Ws/a  0

 Nowork is needed to break particle bubble

interface, because there is no particle bubble
interface (surface is completely wetted by
water)
623
 If   180

Surface is covered by air. Not valid in practice.

 Thefloatability of a mineral increases with the
contact angle.
 Maximum  =106 (on paraffin)

624
CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS ACCORDING TO THEIR
FLOATABILITY

Minerals
Non – polar
(Hydrophobic) minerals

Polar minerals

625
 Non – polar Minerals :
They are naturally floatable minerals. The
surfaces of non – polar minerals are
characterised by relatively weak molecular
bonds(In the crystal, the atoms or molecules
are bonded to each other by covalent bonds,
but the surfaces are held together by van der
Waals forces).
 Non– polar surfaces do not readily attach to
the water molecules, therefore they are
hydrophobic.
626
 Graphite, sulphur, coal, talc, molybdenite,
antimonite have natural floatabilities with
contact angles between 60 and 90.

 Although it is possible to float these minerals

without the aid of reagents, it is universal to
increase their hydrophobicity by the addition
of hydrocarbon oils and/or frothing agents.

627
 Polar Minerals :
Their surfaces are characterised by the
existence of strong covalent or ionic bonding
which are polar in character.

 The surfaces show high free energy and

therefore react strongly with water molecules.
These minerals are hydrophilic. They have
been subdivided into various classes according
to the polarity which increases from sulphides
to silicates.

628
Sulphides Sulfate Carbonates Polar Salt Oxides Silicate
s Type s
Galena BaSO4 Cerussite CaF2 Hematite Zircon
(PbCO3)
Covellite Anglesit Malachite CaCO3 Magnetit Quartz
e [CuCO3,Cu(OH e
(PbSO4) )2]
Bornite Gypsum Azurite MgCO3 Goethite Feldspar
[CuCO3,Cu(OH
)2]
Chalcopyrite Apatite Chromite Garnet

Arsenopyrit Scheelite Borax Beryl

e
Pyrite Smithsonite Wolframi
te
Sphalerite Siderite Rutile

Native Au, Cassiterit

Ag e 629

Pt, Cu
FLOTATION REAGENTS

 Collectors : Show their function at solid

/ water interfaces to render the
surfaces hydrophobic.
 Frothers : Show their function at air /
water interfaces to maintain a
reasonable stable froth.
 Modifiers (Regulators) : Control the
flotation process. Either activate or
depress mineral attachment to air
bubbles, and also used to control pH.
630
COLLECTORS (PROMOTERS)

 Collectors are organic compounds which render

selected minerals water repellent. They reduce
the stability of the hydrated layer to such a
level that attachment of the particle to the
bubble can be made on contact.

 Collectors may be ionizing compounds or non

ionizing compounds.

631
 Non ionizing collectors are practically insoluble, do not
dissociate in water. They are liquids, hydrocarbon oils.
They render the mineral surface water repellent by
covering its surface with a thin film.
 e.g. Kerosene, creosote

 Essential condition : The solid surface has

  > 0.

632
 Ionizingcollectors have complex molecules
which are asymmetric in structure and are
heteropolar (the molecule contains a non
polar hydrocarbon group and a polar group).
The non polar hydrocarbon radical has water
repellent property and provides the
hydrophobic surface to the mineral.

 Ioniccollectors are classified as anionic or

cationic type (in accordance with the type of
ion which carries hydrocarbon radical).

633
 e.g.

R - COO- H  Carboxylic acid is anionic type collector

(R is in the [-] charged ion)

634
 Structureof an ionizing collector (C17H33 - COONa)
Sodium Oleate

635
 Amphoteric collectors possess a cationic and
an anionic function, depending on the
working pH. They are used to treat
sedimentary phosphates.

 Collectors adsorb on the mineral surface

with their polar ends while non – polar ends
orientated towards the bulk solution.

636
 Collectors are used in
small amounts
to form a monomolecular
layer on the particle
surface = Starvation level

An increase in concentration
reduces the hydrophobicity due to
the multilayer formation. It also
increases the operational cost and
reduces the selectivity by floating
the other minerals.

637
 In general, longer chain length results in stronger adsorption of the
collector, but reduced selectivity between minerals.

 For maximum selectivity , it is normal practice to use a short chain

collector.

638
 Solubility of collector is dependent to the length of
hydrocarbon radical.

 In oxyhydryl collectors, due to the solubility , the

length of HC chain is limited to the 18 carbon chain of
fatty acid or shorter, and to unsaturated HC chains.

 In sulphydryl collectors, the chain length of collectors

is limited to about 6 carbon atoms as the solubility
decreases beyond that limit.

 Not only chain length, but also the chain structure

affect solubility; branched chains have higher
solubility than straight chains.
 The solubility of collectors containing double bonds in
their HC chains (e.g. Oleic acid) , is greater than the
saturated ones (e.g. Stearic acid). 639
640
 OXYHYDRL COLLECTORS
 Carboxylates ( Fatty Acids)
 Occur naturally in vegetable oils and animal fats. e.g.
Oleic acid or its soap Na – oleate. Linoleic acid
(C17H31COOH)

 Tall oil (a by product of wood pulp industry). It is

approximately 50 % oleic acid, with a lesser amount
of linoleic, linoleic and rosin acids.
 Sodium salts of fatty acids are often used as
collectors, since they are more soluble than the 641

associated acids.
 The carboxylic acids are strong collectors, but
have low selectivity.
They are used for the flotation of minerals of
calcium, barium, strontium, magnesium,
soluble salts of alkali metals and alkaline
earth metals, carbonates of non-ferrous
metals.
 Carboxylic acids are sensitive to hardness of
water.

642
 Organic Sulphates and Sulphonates
 They are used more rarely. They tend to adsorb
less strongly and so have application where
greater selectivity is required.

 They are used for floating barite, CaF2 and

scheelite. Hydroxamate is also in this group and
find application in the flotation of rare-earth
elements.

643
 SULPHYDRYL COLLECTORS
 They are used for sulphide mineral flotation.
 Polar
group contains bivalent sulphur (Thio
compounds).
 Mercaptans are the simplest of thio compounds R–SH
Xanthates ( Di thio carbonates)

 Most widely used sulphydryl collectors. They are

prepared by reacting an alkali hydroxide, an alcohol
and carbon disulphide.

644
 The most widely used xanthates are;
1- Ethyl Xanthate C2
2- Isopropyl Xanthate C3
3- Amyl Xanthate C4
4- Hexyl Xanthate C6

645
 Hydrocarbon chain length in thiol collectors
is quite short. The solubility of xanthates
decreases as the chain length increases,
therefore the chain length is limited to
about 6 carbon atoms.

 Longer chain length results in stronger

adsorpsion of the collector, but reduced
selectivity between sulphide. For maximum
selectivity, it is normal practice to use a
short chain collector.
646
 Decomposition of xanthate occurs by

1- In storage due to the keeping moisture

(Hydrolysis) (After a few months storage, they
develop a strong odour and deeper colour).
2- By oxidation
3- In acid pulp

647
 Hydrolysis:

648
 AlkalinepH prevents xanthate breakdown, which
proceeds as the pH is lowered.

 Oxidation :

649
Adsorption of Xanthate on Sulphides

 Xanthates are adsorbed on sulphides by

chemical adsorption (reaction between the
polar group and metal ion of the surface),
resulting in insoluble metal xanthates.

 Mechanisms involving:
1- Slight surface oxidation – Sulphide is not
joined to the collector anions without the
previous action of oxygen.
2- Oxidation of xanthate to form dixanthogen
3- Adsorption of xanthate and dixanthogen on
sulphide surface. 650
 Solubilities of xanthates :
Cu – Pb – Ag – Hg Xanthates are very low soluble
Cuprous EX : 10-20 ,PbX2 : 10-24
Zn – Fe Xanthates are soluble ZnX2 : 10-3
Ca – Ba – Mg Xanthates are very soluble

651
 Di thio phosphates (Aerofloat)

 They are not widely used as the

xanthates. They are comparatively weak
collectors, but give good results in
combination with xanthates.
 Aerofloats are often used in the
separation of copper from lead sulphides,
as they are effective selective collectors
for copper sulphide minerals, and has
special value in differential work,
particulary when FeS2 must be kept down.

652
 Aerofloatsare reaction products of phosphorus
penta sulphide with phenol.

 Aerofloat 15 : Black reaction product of cresol with

15 % P2S5. The excess cresol acting
as a frother.
 Aerofloat 25 : Carries 25 % P2S5.
 Aerofloats are both collectors and frothers.

653
CATIONIC COLLECTORS
 Theyhave a positively charged polar group
associated with the hydrophobic
hydrocarbon chain. Polar group is based on
pentavalent nitrogen, the amines being the
most common.
 Aminesfrom primary to quaternary have
been used (but primary and secondary are in
common use).

654
 Cationic collectors are often derived from
natural fats, they are often marketed under
the name of particular fat source.(e.g.
Tallow amine acetate)
 Both alkyl and aryl hydrocarbon groups are
used. The length of HC chain is limited by
the amine solubility. To assist in solubility,
the amine collectors are normally available
as chlorides or acetates or hydroxides.

655
 Amines adsorp on mineral surfaces due to the
electrostatic attraction between the polar head
of the collector and the electrical double layer
rather than to the mineral surface.

 Cationic collectors are very sensitive to the pH

of the medium, being most active in slightly acid
solutions and inactive in strongly alkaline and
acid media.

 Cationic collectors are not affected by hard

water. Floatability is sharply decreases in the
presence of slimes.

 Cationiccollectors are used for floating oxides,

carbonates and alkali earth metals, and silicates.
656
A variety of structure in amines:

657
 Nitrogen is also pentavalent in aqueous or
acidic solution.

658
Quaternary ammonium salts are reaction products of tertiary
amines by alkyl halides.

659
 FROTHERS
 Frothers are water soluble organic reagents
that adsorb at the air water interface. They
are heteropolar molecules and generally are
surface active reagent.
 A frother is required to provide a froth that is
stable enough to prevent froth breakage and
subsequent return of particles to the pulp
before the froth is removed.
 It is important , however, that the froth
break down rapidly once removed ; otherwise
problems occur in thickening and subsequent
steps.

660
 Frother should not adsorb on mineral
particles. A good frother should have
negligible collecting power.
 The heteropolar structure of the frother leads
to the adsorption. i .e., the polar groups
towards the water and non-polar groups
oriented towards the air.

Frothers reduce the surface

tension, thus stabilizing the air
bubble due to its activity at the
air /water interface.
661
 The most effective frothers are;

Hydroxyl - OH
Carboxyl - COOH
Carbonyl =C=O
Amino Group - NH2
Sulpho Group - OSO2OH
Sulphanate - SO2OH

662
 Alcohols are the most widely used .
R – OH Alcohol, C5 H11 OH Amyl Alcohol
 Pine oil (its active component is terpineol).

Terpineols C10 H17 .OH

 - Terpineol

663
 Cresol (cresylic acid) CH3. C6 H4 . OH
 Synthetic frothers: High molecular weight
alcohols.
 Advantage over pineoil and cresol:
More stable in composition.
e.g, MIBC (Methyl iso butyl carbinol)
Polyglycol ethers (Dowfroth 250
Cyanamid R-65
Union Carbide PG-400)
664
 Surface Inactive Agents:
They behave as frother
e.g., Diacetone alcohol in solid – liquid – air
Ethyl acetal system. ( not in two – phase
system)
 They have two polar groups and are readily
soluble in water.
 They adsorb on solid surfaces, but not change
their hydrophobicity. They do not reduce
surface tension.
 The molecules reorientate and produce a
sufficiently stable three phase froth.
665
MODIFIERS (REGULATORS)

1 - Activators
2 - Depressants
3 - pH modifiers

666
 Activators

 They change (alter) the mineral surface so

that they intensify the action of collector.
They are generally soluble salts. e.g.,
Sphalerite activation by Cu++ ions.
 ZnS is weakly floated with the xanthates
because of its high solubility (ZnX2 has
high solubility).
 Floatability is improved by the use of
CuSO4.5H2O as an activator.(Cu++ is more
electro- negative than Zn++)
667
 Any metal in the electromotive series can displace
from solution those below it . This series is:
 K, Na, Li, Ba, Sr, Ca, Mg, Al, Mn, Zn, Cr, Cd, Fe, Co,
Ni, Sn, Pb, H(Hydrogen), Cu, As, Bi, Sb, Hg, Ag, Pt,
Au.
 The CuS on the sphalerite surface reacts with
Xanthate to form insoluble Cu-Xanthate, which
renders the surface hydrophobic.

668
 Activationof oxidised minerals of Pb, Zn, Cu, by Na2S
(sodium sulphide) or NaHS (sodium hydrosulphide).
 Sulphidisation of cerussite (PbCO3), smithsonite
(ZnCO3), azurite (2 CuCO3. Cu(OH)2), malachite
(CuCO3. Cu(OH)2)
 Na S hydrolyses and then dissociates:
2

669
 In sulphidisation process, sulphur ions due to the
dissociation of H2S pass into the crystal lattice of the
oxidised minerals, giving them a relatively insoluble
pseudo – sulphide surface coating and allowing them to
be floated by sulphydryl collectors.

670
 The amount of Na2S must be strictly controlled,
as it is a very powerful depressant for sulphide
minerals. The amount required is dependent on
the pulp alkalinity, increase in pH producing
more HS– and S= ions which increase negative
charge on the mineral surface and prevent the
collector (X-) adsorption.
 NaHS is preferred to Na2S, as the former does not
hydrolyse and hence increase the pH.
 In the flotation of mixed sulphide – oxidised ores,
the sulphide minerals are floated first, before
sulphidisation of the oxidised surfaces. This
prevent the depression of sulphides by Na2S.
671
DEPRESSANTS
Depressants are used to hold down a mineral during flotation by rendering
certain minerals hydrophilic.

672
1- CYANIDE

 Cyanides are widely used in the selective

flotation of Pb-Cu-Zn-Fe sulphides as
depressant for ZnS, FeS2 and certain Cu
sulphides.

 ZnS rejection from Cu concentrates (as Zn is

penalizes if over 3 %) CN- reacts with free
Cu++ for deactivation of ZnS.

 If Cu++ ions are in solution, the prevention of

X- adsorption is possible if CN- / Cu++ > 3
673
 NaCN hydrolysis in aqueous solution:

674
 An increase in alkalinity reduces the amount
of free HCN, but increases the concentration
of CN-
 Analkaline pulp is essential as free HCN is
extremely dangerous.
 Cyanidecan react with metal xanthates to
form soluble complexes, preventing xanthate
adsorption on the mineral surface.

675
 PbX is insoluble in CN -
( means CN-
has no
2
depressing effect on galena)
CuX2 is fairly soluble in CN-
(Zn, Ni, Au, Fe )X2 is soluble in CN-

 Thelonger the H.C. radical in xanthates, the

more stable MeX2 in CN-, and more CN- is
required to depress such minerals.

 Disadvantagesof CN- : Extremely toxic,

Environmental problem, Expensive, Dissolve Au
and Ag
676
2 - ZnSO4
 It is a satisfactory ZnS depressant. The
introduction of Zn++ ions can prevent the Cu +

+
deposition on the ZnS surface.
 ZnSO4 is used in many plants to supplement
CN- .

677
 Athigh pH value, Zn(OH)2 is also formed, it is
preciritated on the ZnS surface, preventing
collector adsorption.

 Theuse of ZnSO4 reduces the CN- consumption.

ZnSO4 is effective only at high pH values.

678
3- Ferrosulphate and CN- ( FeSO4 + NaCN)
 Used in Yugoslavia for Pb-Zn ores to depress
ZnS.
 Advantages:Reducing NaCN consumption. Has
economic and ecological advantages.
 In Spain, to treat bulk Cu-Zn-Fe concentrate
zinc bisulphite + cyanide in alkaline conditions
is being used (it is much favourable than ZnSO4
+ NaCN)

679
4- SO4

 Used for PbS depression in Pb-Cu

separation and for deactivation of ZnS.

 SO2 can not be used when treating ores

which contain the secondary copper
minerals covellite and chalcocite, since
they become soluble in the present of
SO2 nad dissolved Cu++ ions activate ZnS.

680
 Advantages : SO2 does not appreciably
depress CuFeS2. ( X- adsorption on CuFeS2 is
enhanced in the present of SO2 ). Effective
ZnS depression while increasing the
floatability of CuFeS2

 SOhas no dissolution effect on precious

2
metals.

681
5- K2Cr2O7
 For depression of PbS in Cu-Pb separation.

 CrO4= anions is adsorbed on PbS producing an

insoluble chemical lead chromate which
increases wettability and prevents flotation.

682
6- Na2S or NaHS

 To depress CuFeS2 in a bulk Cu- Mo

concentrate.

 Similarly
CN- ions depress Cu++ in Cu-Mo
concentrate.

 Noke’s reagent (a product of the reaction of

NaOH and P2S5 ) is also used. Noke’s reagent has
an instantaneous depressing action on copper
minerals.
683
 7- Na2SiO3

 Itis a slime dispersant. Na2SiO3 in solution

increases the double layer charge on particles, so
that the slime layers readily disperse.
 Slime: - 20 µm size particles. They coat the
mineral surface, retaring collector adsorpsion.
 Na2SiO3 is depressant for gangue slimes and
siliceous gangue.
 Na2SiO3 is also used as a depressant in the flot of
non-sulphide minerals, such as scheelite, CaCO3
and CaF2 (Selectivity of CaWO4 from CaCO3 and
684

CaF2 is achieved in oleate flot).

8- Organic Reagents
Starch
Tannin
Quebracho
Dextrin
Goulac (Ca – lignin sulfonate)

685
 They do not ionize in water, but form
colloidal particles in the pulp which can be
deposited on the mineral particles, prevent
collector ads, similarly to slime coating.

 Largequantities of organic reagents depress

all minerals. They are not as selective as
inorganic depressants. Goulac – depressant
for carbonaceous gangues used in depressing
CaCO3 and barite from CaF2 and rare earth
oxide.

686
 They are used to depress;
1- Talc
2- Graphite
3- CaCO3
4- PbS (in Cu-Pb separation)

 Quebracho is an excellent depressant for

calcite in CaF2 flot. It is also depressant for
wolframite when floating sulphides.
687
9-LIME

 Depressant for FeS2 and arsenopyrite.

 Fe(OH)
FeO (OH)
Ca(OH)2

688
pH Regulators – Importance of pH

 Pulp alkalinity plays an important role in flotation.

 It effects on
1. Reagent concentration (pK value)
2. Surface charge
3. Collector adsorption on mineral surface (competition
of collector ion with OH-)

689
 Most widely used pH regulators are;

1. Lime
2. Na2CO3
3. NaOH
4. H2SO4

690
 Critical pH value (Below the curve mineral
floats, above not)
 Critical
pH value depends on the collector
concentration, type and pH value.

691
 Ionization of water:

H 2O H   OH 
H  O H 
 
1
4
K 110
H2O

    1 10
K  H   OH  1
4

 
l og 10 14 l og H  l og O H   
  
 14  log H  log OH
 
 or   

14 l og H  log OH


  
14  log H l og OH


pH pO H

D efi nit ion of pH l og H   

692
 At neutral pH (pH =7) pH=pOH

14  pH  pOH
14  2 pH
pH  7
When pH  7 Acidic range
When pH  7 Basic range

693
 Lime has no reverse effect on copper minerals,
but it does depress galena to some extend.
 Inthe flotation of PbS , pH control is often
done by the use of soda ash.
 Lime has no depressing effect on the activated
zinc minerals.(Zinc flot. pH is 10-12)
 The effectiveness of NaCN and Na2S is
governed by the value of the pH.

694
 These reagents are useless in the absence of
alkalis.

 Foreach mineral and given concentration of

collector, there is a critical Cyanide Ion
Concentration above which flotation is
imposibble.
 LABORATORY FLOTATION TESTS (Batch
Tests)
 Laboratory tests are carried out in order to :

1. Determine the amenability of specific ore to

flotation and to obtain flotation data ( e.g.,
type of reagents grade, recovery flowsheet)
2. To improve the flotation circuit of an existing
plant
3. For development of new reagents.

696
 Testwork is carried out on representative
sample (ore). The ore sample should be
representative, not only in chemical
composition, but also mineralogical
composition and degree of dissemination.

 Drill core samples are ideal for testing if

drilling in the deposit has been extensive.

697
 Preparation of representative sample for
flotation testing :

- Crushing and grinding : Determination of

optimum liberation size (m.o.g.).
Contamination should be avoided

- Storage : Oxidation should be avoided

698
 Batch rod mill grinding (in lab) gives close size
distribution to closed- circuit ball mill (Ball mill
produces a flot feed with a wider size distribution)

 True simulation is never achieved (high specific

gravity minerals predicted by batch tests)

 Initialtests on flotability of a mineral (measure of

floability) is made by Contact Angle Measurements.

 Hallimond Tube Test : Flotation possibility with a

small sample.
699
- Agitation of ground sample (agitation should
be vigorous to keep the solids in suspension).
Pulp density 25-40 % solid by weight (sometimes
as low as 8 % or as high as 55 %)
- Conditioning with reagents ( pH regulators,
depressanys, activators, collectors, frothers).
Type of reagents, amounts, addition points.
- Flotation time
- Cleaning steps : ın batch tests, cleaner tailings
are not recycled, so they do not always simulate
commercial plants. If cleaning is critical, cycle
tests may have to be undertaken. Normally at
least six cycles are required before the circuit
reaches equilibrium (Locked cycle test)
700
 Pilot Scale Testwork

1. To provide continuous operating data, to

simulate commercial plants
2. To provide large amount of concentrate for
survey by smelter
3. To compare costs with other methods
4. To compare equipment performance.

701
 Pilot tests can provide the following variables:
1. Optimum m.o.g of the ore
2. Optimum quantity of reagents; location of addition
points
3. Pulp density (size and number of flotation cells)
4. Flotation time
5. Pulp temperature
6. The extent of uniformity of ore, variations is
hardness, grindability, mineral content and
floatability
7. Corrosion and corrosion qualities of the pulp
8. Type of circuit 702
703
FLOTATION MACHINES

Air entrained by turbulent

pulp additional (cascade
 PNEUMATIC
cells)

Air blown in or induced

(the air must be dispersed
aither by baffles or some
form of permeable base
within the cell)
704
 Self aerated
 MECHANICAL

Supercharged (air is
introduced by an
external blower)

705
 Cell-to-cell (machines
are separated by weirs
 Flotation Machines between each impeller)

Open flow (free-

flow) = Unstricted
flow

706
PNEUMATIC MACHINES

 Give a low-grade concentrate.

 Less operating trauble

707
Davera Cell

708
 Tank is segmented by a vertical baffle.
 Air and feed are injected into the tank
through a cyclone type dispersion nozzle.
1. Segment (highly agitated region of tank) .
For dispersion of air and collection of
particle by bubbles.
2. Segment (quiescent region). For bubble-pulp
disengagement

709
 Daveracell can be used for roughing or
cleaning applications. It has
- Lower operating costs
- Reduced flour area
- Improved metallurgical performance

 Daveracell is not widely used . In Zambia, it

has replaced some mechanical cleaner
machines at copper mines (also in New
Guinea).
710
Flotation Column
2 sections
1-Washing section. Feed Pint
- Reduces contamination of the
concentrate. There is a downward
flow in all parts preventing flour of
feed in to the concentrate

2- Recovery section
Particles suspended in a descending
water phase. Floatable particles
adhere to the air buble and
transported to the washing
sectionabove the feed point.
711
 Much more industrial use, primarly in Canada
for Mo.

 Itgives much better separations than cell-type

machines, particularly when operating on fine
particles.

712
 In Canada, for Molybdenum circuit : Square
cross section . 91,5 cm x 46 cm
 In British Columbia : Cu-Mo separation
 In U.S.A : Chromite ore, fine coal.

 In the future , due to their froth washing

capability, columns may find increasing use
for treating ores that need extensive fine
grinding, followed by de-sliming and multi-
stage cleaning.

713
Froth Separators

 Developed in the Independent United

States (ex.USSR) in 1961.
 Principle: Conditioned is discharged
onto the top of a froth bed,
hydrophobic particles being retained,
hydrophilic species pass through.
 Froth separators are particularly suited
to the separation of coarse particles
(Typical feed size 75 µm – 2 mm )
714
715
 Capacity : 50 tph
 Pulp density : 50 – 70 % solids

 Increasing flotation time reduces the recovery,

but increasing the grade of concentrate
(reverse in mechanical machines)

716
MECHANICAL FLOTATION MACHINES

 Most widely used machines

 Mechanically driven impeller agitates the slurry and
disperses the incoming air into small bubbles.
1. Self operating : Air is introduced by the positive
suction of the impeller
2. Supercharged : Air is introduced by an external
blower.

717
 Cell-to-cell : Weirs between each impeller

 Open flow (free flow) : Unrestricted flow of the slurry.

(Suited to high throughputs)
 In recent years, e.g., for base metal ores, larger
capacity flotation cells are in use, because of
reduction in capital and operating costs.
 In the mid-1960 s : Flot cell were 5,7 m3 in volume.
 Now : 8,5 to 14,2 m3 are widely used.
 Denver Equipment –Largest cell : 36,1 m3
Galigher : 42,5 m3
Wemco : 85 m3
Outokumpu Oy : 38 m3
Sala : 44 m3
718
Cell-to-cell Types

 Mostwell known is Denver Sub – A

machines.
 Used widely in small plants and multi-
stage cleaning circuits (cell size up to
14,2 m3)
 Pumping action of the impellers
permitted the transfer of pulp, without
external pumps. The flow being aided
by the suction action of the impeller.
719
 Impeller speed : 7-10 m/sec
 Stationary hood : prevents sanding up of the
impeller if the machine is shut down.
4 baffle vanes are attached to hood, extends
almost to the corners of the cell. These
prevent agitation and swirling of the pulp
above the impeller and producing a
quiescent zone.

720
 Particles which are too heavy to flow over the
tailings weir are by-passed through Sand Relief
Ports, which prevent the build-up of coarse
material in the cell.
 Wemco Fagergren : Up to 85 m3, consists of
rotor-disperser assembly.

721
Supercharging Machines ( Air is blow into the pulp)

 Characterised by the absence of

intermediate partitions and weirs
between cells. The pulp is free to flow.

 Advantages :
1. Larger tonnages can be handled
2. Flotation efficiency is high
3. Operation is simple
4. Operator attention is minimised
722
 Pulp level is controlled by a single tailing
weir at the end of the trough.
 Most well known of the supercharged
machine is Galigher Agitair.

 Galigher Agitair machine 42,5 m3 volume.

Impeller is rotating in a stationary baffle
system.
 Air is blown 175-1000 kg / m2
 Agitair machines produce copious froths and
suitable for handling ores of poor floatability
which require large froth columns.
723
Outokumpu Oy - OK Flotation Cell (U shape profile):

 Impeller differs from the other machines

 Impellerconsists of a number of vertical slots which
taper downwards.

724
 Criteria in assessing cell performance
1. Metallurgical parformance, RX, Grade %
2. Capacity, in tonnes per unit volume
3. Power consumption, tonne
4. Economics, e.g., initial costs, operating
and maintenance cost
5. Easy of operation

725
 Mechanical machines are better suited to
difficult separations, particularly where fines
are present. The impellers tend to have a
scouring effect which removes slimes from
particle surfaces.

 Mechanism of particle-bubble attachment

which may be by coursing bubble contact
between an ascending bubble and falling
particle is ideal in Davera cell and column
machines, but not in mechanical machines.
Mechanical cells are ideal mixers.
726
 MAGNETIC SEPARATION

 Magnetic separators exploit the difference in

magnetic properties between the ore minerals.
 They are used :
1. To separate valuable mineral from the non-
magnetic gangue (i.e., magnetite from quartz)
2. To remove magnetic contaminants from non-
magnetic valuable mineral (i.e., magnetic
impurity from clay or cassiterite or wolframite)

727
 All materials are affected in some way when placed
in a magnetic field. ( Sometimes , it may be too
slight to be detected). Materials can be classified
according to whether they are attracted or repelled
by a magnet.
Diamagnetics :
Repelled along the lines of magnetic
force to a point of minimum field
intensity
 Materials

Paramagnetics:
Attracted along the lines of
magnetic force to a points of
728

greater field intensity.

 Paramagnetic minerals : They can be
concentrated by high-intensity magnetic
separators.

 Ilmenite : FeTiO3
Rutile : TiO2
Wolframite : (Fe,Mn)WO4
Monazite : (Ce,La,Th,Y) PO4
Siderite : FeCO3
Pyrrhotite : FeS
Chromite : (FeO)(Cr2 O3)
Hematite : Fe2 O3
Manganese minerals
729
 Some elements are themselves paramagnetic,
such as Ni, Co, Mn, Cr, Ce, Ti and Pt group
metals.
 Ferromagnetism : special case of paramagnetism.
Have very high susceptibility to magnetic forces.
Can be concentrated in low-intensity magnetic
separators. (i.e., Fe3O4 – Tramp iron )
 Remanence : magnetism retained when removed
from the magnetic field (Ferromagnetic minerals
show remanence property)
 Hematite (Fe3O4 ) and siderite (FeCO3) can be
roasted to produce magnetite. 730
 The unit of measurement of magnetic flux density
(or magnetic induction )(B) is the Tesla (T).
 B = Nm of lines of forces passing through a unit
area of material.

 The magnetising force which induces the lines of

force through a material is called the Field
Intensity (H) = ampere /metre
(1 ampere /metre = 4 x 10 – 7 Tesla)

731
 The Intensity of Magnetisation (M) (ampere /metre) of
a material relates to the magnetisation induced in the
material, and :
B   0 H  M 
 0  Permeabili ty of free space
-7
( 4 x 10 T m /A)

 In vacuum µ =0
In air , µ is very low
B = µ0 H means B=H
732
 Thevalue of field intensity (H) is virtually the
same as flux density (B), and the term
magnetic field intensity is then often loosely
used.

 However, particularly ferromagnetics, the

value of flux density B is much higher than
field density (H) which term is used should be
specified.
733
 Magnetic Susceptibility (S) is the ratio of the
imtensity of magnetisation produced in the
material to the magnetic field.
M
S 
H

B = µ0 ( H + M )
B = µ0 ( H + SH )
B = µ0 H ( 1+ S)
B = µ0 µ H
1 + S = µ Relative permeability (dimentionless)
734
 For paramagnetic materials, S is a small positive
constant
 For diamagnetic materials, S is a negative constant
For Hematite, S = 0,01
For Quartz, S = - 0,001
 The magnetic susceptibility of a ferromagnetic
material is dependent on the magnetic field ,
decreasing with field strength as it is saturated.
 At an applied field of 1 Tesla, S = 0,35
at 1,5 Tesla, saturation
 Iron cores or frames used in high intensity
magnetic separators, iron saturates at 2 – 2,5 T, so
the use of very large currents ( hundreds of
amperes) is necessary. 735
 The capacity of a magnet to lift a mineral is
dependent
1. The value of field intensity
2. Field gradient

 Field Gradient = The rate at which the field

dH
intensity increases towards the magnet
F H
dL surface

= dH / dl
 F : Force on the particle
(or lifting force )
H : Field intensity
736
MAGNETIC SEPARATORS

Low intensity
 Magnetic separators

High intensity
and

Dry Separators

Wet Separators
737
 Requirement :
Steep field gradient in a high – intensity field

 Methods to produce steep field gradient are:

1. By using a pole which is constructed of alternate

magnetic and non-magnetic laminations
2. By producing a converging field

738
 Converging field is produced by providing a V-shaped
pole above a flat pole. Upper pole concentrates the
magnetic flux into a smaal area giving high intensity.
The lower flat pole has the same total magnetic flux
distributed over a larger area.

 There is a steep field gradient across the gap.

739
 Magnetic field intensity can be regulated by :

1. Varying the current (especially in

electromagnetic separators)
2. By changing the interpole distance (in
permanent magnets)

 In commercial magnetic separators

(continuous – process), the separation is
carried out on a moving stream of particles
passing (through or into) the magnetic field.

740
 When a ferromagnetic particle is introduced
into a magnetic field, the lines of force
concentrates (converge to the particle) and
the particle behaves as magnet. Magnetic
flocculation or agglomeration of the particles
can occur if they are small.

 Itis a serious problem especially with dry

separating machines (they can entrain gangue
particles, reducing the efficiency).

741
 Flocculation is minimised by passing the
material through consecutive magnetic fields
(successive reversal of the polarity).

 For collection of magnetic and non-magnetic

fractions, most separators are designed so that
the magnetics are attracted to the pole
pieces, but come into contact with the
conveying device (not directly the pole-piece).

 The non-magnetics fall freely into a bin.

742
TYPE OF MAGNETIC SEPARATOR

 Can be classified into :

1. a) Low intensity
b) High intensity

2. i) Dry feed
ii) Wet feed

743
LOW INTENSITY MAGNETIC SEPARATION

 DryLow Intensity Magnetic Separator =

Cobbing
 Cobbing is concentration of coarse
particles which are strongly magnetic.
Cobbing can be carried out in drum
separator.
 Below 0,5 cm size range, dry separation
tends to be replaced by wet methods,
which produce much less dust loss, and
usually a cleaner product.
744
 Low intensity wet magnetic separation is widely
used for purifying (regeneration) the magnetic
medium in the HMS Process.

 Crockett Separator : LIWMS

 An endless belt is dipped into the trough into

which the pulp is fed.
 The magnetic particles are picked up (lifted) by
a bank of magnet and then carried to the
concentrate discharge (water spray wash the
concentrate)
 The magnets have alternating polarity so that
entrained gangue particles released.
745
746
 DRUM SEPARATORS (LIWMS)

 Used for concentrating finely ground iron ore,

and for cleaning the medium in HMS circuit.
 They consists essentially a rotating non-
magnetic drum containing 3 to 6 stationary
magnets of alternating polarity.
 Magnetic particles are lifted by the magnets and
pinned to the drum and are conveyed out of the
field, leaving the gangue in the tailing
compartment.
 Water is introduced into the machine to keep
the pulp in suspension.
 Field intensity up to 0,7 T
747
 Concurrent type :
rotation of drum and feed flow are
in the same direction. Produces
clean magnetic concentrate,
especially in HMS c,rcuit.
 Drum Separator Relatively for coarse material.

Counter current type :

Tailings flow in the
opposite direction to the
rotation
748
 Counter current separator is used in roughing
operations and magnetic material losses are held to a
minimum. Relatively for fine material < 250 µm.

 Drum separators are widely used to treat taconite ores,

containing 40 – 50 % Fe as magnetite, or sometimes
hematite which needs fine grinding.

749
Cross – Belt Separator

 Used to concentrate moderately magnetic

ores.
 Itconsists of two or more horseshoe
electromagnets, arranged one above the
other. The cross – belts prevent the
magnetic particles from adhering to the
pole.
 The poles of the upper magnets are wedge
shaped while the lower poles are flat

750
751
752
Counter- current separator

753
754
755
 Disc Separator (Boxmag Rapid Ltd)
 Itpermits a much smaller air gap than the belt
separator and a greater degree of selectivity.

 Itconsists of a series of discs, incorporating

concentrating grooves, revolving above a conveyor
belt, magnetised by induction from a powerful
stationary electromagnets situated below the belt.

 Each disc permits to extract and separate 2-products

of different permeability.
 Progressive intensification of the magnetic field is
obtained by vertical adjustment of the discs (gap)
 The flux is  0,8 – 1,5 T (which is strong enough to
756

pick up many paramagnetic minerals).

HIGH INTENSITY MAGNETIC SEPARATORS

 Highintensity fields of 2T are used to

extract very weakly paramagnetic
minerals.

757
Induced roll separators

 To treat beach sands, tin ores, wolframite,

glass sands and phoshate rock.

 Field strengths of up to 2,2 T are

attainable in the gap between the feed
pole and roll.

 The gap between the feed pole rotor is

adjustable and is usually decreased from
pole to pole to take off successively more
weakly magnetic products.
758
 Permroll
 Permroll
is a roll separator which uses powerful
permanent magnets.

 The magnetic field is generated without an air gap,

and the separator is able to handle highly magnetic
as well as weakly paramagnetic.

 InPermroll, the belt passes over the magnetic roll,

preventing direct roll -particle contact.

 Dry HIMS is limited to ores containing little material

< 75 µm. The efficiency of separation on fine
material is severely reduced by the effects of air
currents, particle – particle adhesion, and particle –
759

rotor adhesion.
 Continuous HIWMS : Reduces the minimum
particle size for efficient separation. Expensive
drying operations can be eliminate.

 Gill Separator : Designed on the principle of the

induced roll machines. The laminated grooved
rotor rotates about a vertical axis at the centre
of a set of electromagnetic pole pieces.
 The feed slurry flows down along the grooves
between the pole piece and the rotor.
 It generates a maximum field of < 1,4 T
 Ex : Used in Australia and Malaysia for
separating highly magnetic ilmenite, but it will
not treat weakly magnetic hematite ores
effectively. 760
 Jones HIWMS : The most well known separator to
treat fine hematite ores.

 The magnet yokes are welded to strong main

frame, with the electromagnetic coils enclosed in
air cooled cases.
 The actual separation takes place in the plate
boxes which are on the periphery of one or two
rotors attached to the central roller shaft.
 The feed slurry flows into plate boxes which are
grooved.
 Feed points are at the leading edges of the
magnetic field.
 Each rotor has two symmetrically disposed points.
761
 Any entrained non-magnetics are washed out by
low pressure water.
 When the plate boxes reach a point midway
between the two magnetic poles, where the
magnetic field is essentially zero, the magnetic
particles are washed out with high pressure
water spray.

 Field intensities of over 2T can be produced in

these machines.
 For 1,5 T field, electrical power consumption in
the coils of 16 kW / pole.
 4 tons of water is used per tonne of solids (90 %
of water is recycled ).
762
 Disadvantages :
 Very high capital cost (cost of flotation
equipment to concentrate weakly magnetic
ore is  20 % of a Jones separator)
Total cost depends on terms for capital
depreciation.

 Over 10 years, HIMS may be the most

attractive process.
 Example : One of the largest applications is
in Brazil.120 tph of - 150 µm
specular hematite ore.
763
 Application of Wet HIMS
1. Recovery of hematite.
2. Magnetic impurity from cassiterite concentrate.
3. Removal of fine magnetic impurities from
asbestos.
4. Removal of fine magnetic impurities from
scheelite concentrates.
5. Purification of talc
6. Recovery of wolframite and non-sulphide Mo –
bearing minerals from flotation tailings
7. Treatment of heavy mineral beach sands.
8. Recovery of Au and Uranium from cyanidation
residue (Fe coating) 764
High Gradient Magnetic Separator (HGMS)

 Used to separate very feebly magnetic particles.

 In the conventional HIMS , the working field occurs in

air gaps in the magnetic circuit. The volume of iron
required is many times greater than the gap volume
where separation takes place.

765
 They tend to be very massive and heavy in
relation to their capacity (sometimes over 200
tons of iron are used). Hence capital and
installation costs are high.

 Asiron saturates at  2 – 2,5 T, conventional iron

circuits are of little value for generating field
above 2 T.

 Such fields can only be generated by the use of

high H field (Magnetic field intensity), produced
in solenoids , but the energy consumption is
extremely high, and there are problems in
cooling the solenoid.
766
 In HGMS, the magnetic force is incrased by
increasing the value of the magnetic field
gradient. Uniform field of a solenoid is used. The
core or working volume, is filled with a matrix of
secondary poles (wire wood). (wire wood is filling
only about 10 % of the working volume ).

 Each secondary pole, can produce a maximum

field strength of 2T, but more importantly, each
pole produces in its immediate vicinity, high field
gradient of up to 1 T/mm.

767
 The matrix is held in a canister into which the
slurry is fed. The particles are captured.
Periodically, the magnetic field can be
removed and the matrix flushed with water to
remove the captured material.

 Anincrease in field gradient necessarily

reduces the working gap between secondary
poles. Therefore, the matrix separators are
best suited to very fine particles treatment.

768
 e.g., They are used mainly in the kaolin
industry, for removing micron sized
particles which contain iron.
 In USA and in UK (Cornwall) separator with
2 m diameter basket which contains
ferromagnetic matrix, are in commercial
use.
Field : 2 T, capacity 10 – 80 tph. (for clay
purification). Future use may be for
desulphurization of coals.
769
SUPERCONDUCTING SEPARATORS
 Special alloys which do not present any
resistance to electric current are used at
extremely low temperature. e.g., Niobium –
tantalum at 4.2 K (the temperature of liquid He)
 Once a current commences to flow through a
coil, which was made of superconducting
material, it will continue to flow without being
connected to a power source, the coil will
become a permanent magnet.

 Superconducting magnets can produce magnetic

fields up to 15 T. 770
 Example : Eriez Magnetics (superconducting
HGMS) process kaolinite clay in U.S.
 This machine use only 0,007 kW in producing 5 T;
the ancient equipment require 20 kW.
 Conventional 2 T HGMS needs about 250 kW.

771
772
773
774
 MAGNETIC SEPARATION

 Magnetic separators exploit the difference in

magnetic properties between the ore minerals.
 They are used :
1. To separate valuable mineral from the non-
magnetic gangue (i.e., magnetite from quartz)
2. To remove magnetic contaminants from non-
magnetic valuable mineral (i.e., magnetic
impurity from clay or cassiterite or wolframite)

775
 All materials are affected in some way when placed
in a magnetic field. ( Sometimes , it may be too
slight to be detected). Materials can be classified
according to whether they are attracted or repelled
by a magnet.
Diamagnetics :
Repelled along the lines of magnetic
force to a point of minimum field
intensity
 Materials

Paramagnetics:
Attracted along the lines of
magnetic force to a points of
776

greater field intensity.

 Paramagnetic minerals : They can be
concentrated by high-intensity magnetic
separators.

 Ilmenite : FeTiO3
Rutile : TiO2
Wolframite : (Fe,Mn)WO4
Monazite : (Ce,La,Th,Y) PO4
Siderite : FeCO3
Pyrrhotite : FeS
Chromite : (FeO)(Cr2 O3)
Hematite : Fe2 O3
Manganese minerals
777
 Some elements are themselves paramagnetic,
such as Ni, Co, Mn, Cr, Ce, Ti and Pt group
metals.
 Ferromagnetism : special case of paramagnetism.
Have very high susceptibility to magnetic forces.
Can be concentrated in low-intensity magnetic
separators. (i.e., Fe3O4 – Tramp iron )
 Remanence : magnetism retained when removed
from the magnetic field (Ferromagnetic minerals
show remanence property)
 Hematite (Fe3O4 ) and siderite (FeCO3) can be
roasted to produce magnetite. 778
 The unit of measurement of magnetic flux density
(or magnetic induction )(B) is the Tesla (T).
 B = Nm of lines of forces passing through a unit
area of material.

 The magnetising force which induces the lines of

force through a material is called the Field
Intensity (H) = ampere /metre
(1 ampere /metre = 4 x 10 – 7 Tesla)

779
 The Intensity of Magnetisation (M) (ampere /metre) of
a material relates to the magnetisation induced in the
material, and :
B   0 H  M 
 0  Permeabili ty of free space
-7
( 4 x 10 T m /A)

 In vacuum µ =0
In air , µ is very low
B = µ0 H means B=H
780
 Thevalue of field intensity (H) is virtually the
same as flux density (B), and the term
magnetic field intensity is then often loosely
used.

 However, particularly ferromagnetics, the

value of flux density B is much higher than
field density (H) which term is used should be
specified.
781
 Magnetic Susceptibility (S) is the ratio of the
imtensity of magnetisation produced in the
material to the magnetic field.
M
S 
H

B = µ0 ( H + M )
B = µ0 ( H + SH )
B = µ0 H ( 1+ S)
B = µ0 µ H
1 + S = µ Relative permeability (dimentionless)
782
 For paramagnetic materials, S is a small positive
constant
 For diamagnetic materials, S is a negative constant
For Hematite, S = 0,01
For Quartz, S = - 0,001
 The magnetic susceptibility of a ferromagnetic
material is dependent on the magnetic field ,
decreasing with field strength as it is saturated.
 At an applied field of 1 Tesla, S = 0,35
at 1,5 Tesla, saturation
 Iron cores or frames used in high intensity
magnetic separators, iron saturates at 2 – 2,5 T, so
the use of very large currents ( hundreds of
amperes) is necessary. 783
 The capacity of a magnet to lift a mineral is
dependent
1. The value of field intensity
2. Field gradient

 Field Gradient = The rate at which the field

dH
intensity increases towards the magnet
F H
dL surface

= dH / dl
 F : Force on the particle
(or lifting force )
H : Field intensity
784
MAGNETIC SEPARATORS

Low intensity
 Magnetic separators

High intensity
and

Dry Separators

Wet Separators
785
 Requirement :
Steep field gradient in a high – intensity field

 Methods to produce steep field gradient are:

1. By using a pole which is constructed of alternate

magnetic and non-magnetic laminations
2. By producing a converging field

786
 Converging field is produced by providing a V-shaped
pole above a flat pole. Upper pole concentrates the
magnetic flux into a smaal area giving high intensity.
The lower flat pole has the same total magnetic flux
distributed over a larger area.

 There is a steep field gradient across the gap.

787
 Magnetic field intensity can be regulated by :

1. Varying the current (especially in

electromagnetic separators)
2. By changing the interpole distance (in
permanent magnets)

 In commercial magnetic separators

(continuous – process), the separation is
carried out on a moving stream of particles
passing (through or into) the magnetic field.

788
 When a ferromagnetic particle is introduced
into a magnetic field, the lines of force
concentrates (converge to the particle) and
the particle behaves as magnet. Magnetic
flocculation or agglomeration of the particles
can occur if they are small.

 Itis a serious problem especially with dry

separating machines (they can entrain gangue
particles, reducing the efficiency).

789
 Flocculation is minimised by passing the
material through consecutive magnetic fields
(successive reversal of the polarity).

 For collection of magnetic and non-magnetic

fractions, most separators are designed so that
the magnetics are attracted to the pole
pieces, but come into contact with the
conveying device (not directly the pole-piece).

 The non-magnetics fall freely into a bin.

790
TYPE OF MAGNETIC SEPARATOR

 Can be classified into :

1. a) Low intensity
b) High intensity

2. i) Dry feed
ii) Wet feed

791
LOW INTENSITY MAGNETIC SEPARATION

 DryLow Intensity Magnetic Separator =

Cobbing
 Cobbing is concentration of coarse
particles which are strongly magnetic.
Cobbing can be carried out in drum
separator.
 Below 0,5 cm size range, dry separation
tends to be replaced by wet methods,
which produce much less dust loss, and
usually a cleaner product.
792
 Low intensity wet magnetic separation is widely
used for purifying (regeneration) the magnetic
medium in the HMS Process.

 Crockett Separator : LIWMS

 An endless belt is dipped into the trough into

which the pulp is fed.
 The magnetic particles are picked up (lifted) by
a bank of magnet and then carried to the
concentrate discharge (water spray wash the
concentrate)
 The magnets have alternating polarity so that
entrained gangue particles released.
793
794
 DRUM SEPARATORS (LIWMS)

 Used for concentrating finely ground iron ore,

and for cleaning the medium in HMS circuit.
 They consists essentially a rotating non-
magnetic drum containing 3 to 6 stationary
magnets of alternating polarity.
 Magnetic particles are lifted by the magnets and
pinned to the drum and are conveyed out of the
field, leaving the gangue in the tailing
compartment.
 Water is introduced into the machine to keep
the pulp in suspension.
 Field intensity up to 0,7 T
795
 Concurrent type :
rotation of drum and feed flow are
in the same direction. Produces
clean magnetic concentrate,
especially in HMS c,rcuit.
 Drum Separator Relatively for coarse material.

Counter current type :

Tailings flow in the
opposite direction to the
rotation
796
 Counter current separator is used in roughing
operations and magnetic material losses are held to a
minimum. Relatively for fine material < 250 µm.

 Drum separators are widely used to treat taconite ores,

containing 40 – 50 % Fe as magnetite, or sometimes
hematite which needs fine grinding.

797
Cross – Belt Separator

 Used to concentrate moderately magnetic

ores.
 Itconsists of two or more horseshoe
electromagnets, arranged one above the
other. The cross – belts prevent the
magnetic particles from adhering to the
pole.
 The poles of the upper magnets are wedge
shaped while the lower poles are flat

798
799
800
Counter- current separator

801
802
803
 Disc Separator (Boxmag Rapid Ltd)
 Itpermits a much smaller air gap than the belt
separator and a greater degree of selectivity.

 Itconsists of a series of discs, incorporating

concentrating grooves, revolving above a conveyor
belt, magnetised by induction from a powerful
stationary electromagnets situated below the belt.

 Each disc permits to extract and separate 2-products

of different permeability.
 Progressive intensification of the magnetic field is
obtained by vertical adjustment of the discs (gap)
 The flux is  0,8 – 1,5 T (which is strong enough to
804

pick up many paramagnetic minerals).

HIGH INTENSITY MAGNETIC SEPARATORS

 Highintensity fields of 2T are used to

extract very weakly paramagnetic
minerals.

805
Induced roll separators

 To treat beach sands, tin ores, wolframite,

glass sands and phoshate rock.

 Field strengths of up to 2,2 T are

attainable in the gap between the feed
pole and roll.

 The gap between the feed pole rotor is

adjustable and is usually decreased from
pole to pole to take off successively more
weakly magnetic products.
806
 Permroll
 Permroll
is a roll separator which uses powerful
permanent magnets.

 The magnetic field is generated without an air gap,

and the separator is able to handle highly magnetic
as well as weakly paramagnetic.

 InPermroll, the belt passes over the magnetic roll,

preventing direct roll -particle contact.

 Dry HIMS is limited to ores containing little material

< 75 µm. The efficiency of separation on fine
material is severely reduced by the effects of air
currents, particle – particle adhesion, and particle –
807

rotor adhesion.
 Continuous HIWMS : Reduces the minimum
particle size for efficient separation. Expensive
drying operations can be eliminate.

 Gill Separator : Designed on the principle of the

induced roll machines. The laminated grooved
rotor rotates about a vertical axis at the centre
of a set of electromagnetic pole pieces.
 The feed slurry flows down along the grooves
between the pole piece and the rotor.
 It generates a maximum field of < 1,4 T
 Ex : Used in Australia and Malaysia for
separating highly magnetic ilmenite, but it will
not treat weakly magnetic hematite ores
effectively. 808
 Jones HIWMS : The most well known separator to
treat fine hematite ores.

 The magnet yokes are welded to strong main

frame, with the electromagnetic coils enclosed in
air cooled cases.
 The actual separation takes place in the plate
boxes which are on the periphery of one or two
rotors attached to the central roller shaft.
 The feed slurry flows into plate boxes which are
grooved.
 Feed points are at the leading edges of the
magnetic field.
 Each rotor has two symmetrically disposed points.
809
 Any entrained non-magnetics are washed out by
low pressure water.
 When the plate boxes reach a point midway
between the two magnetic poles, where the
magnetic field is essentially zero, the magnetic
particles are washed out with high pressure
water spray.

 Field intensities of over 2T can be produced in

these machines.
 For 1,5 T field, electrical power consumption in
the coils of 16 kW / pole.
 4 tons of water is used per tonne of solids (90 %
of water is recycled ).
810
 Disadvantages :
 Very high capital cost (cost of flotation
equipment to concentrate weakly magnetic
ore is  20 % of a Jones separator)
Total cost depends on terms for capital
depreciation.

 Over 10 years, HIMS may be the most

attractive process.
 Example : One of the largest applications is
in Brazil.120 tph of - 150 µm
specular hematite ore.
811
 Application of Wet HIMS
1. Recovery of hematite.
2. Magnetic impurity from cassiterite concentrate.
3. Removal of fine magnetic impurities from
asbestos.
4. Removal of fine magnetic impurities from
scheelite concentrates.
5. Purification of talc
6. Recovery of wolframite and non-sulphide Mo –
bearing minerals from flotation tailings
7. Treatment of heavy mineral beach sands.
8. Recovery of Au and Uranium from cyanidation
residue (Fe coating) 812
High Gradient Magnetic Separator (HGMS)

 Used to separate very feebly magnetic particles.

 In the conventional HIMS , the working field occurs in

air gaps in the magnetic circuit. The volume of iron
required is many times greater than the gap volume
where separation takes place.

813
 They tend to be very massive and heavy in
relation to their capacity (sometimes over 200
tons of iron are used). Hence capital and
installation costs are high.

 Asiron saturates at  2 – 2,5 T, conventional iron

circuits are of little value for generating field
above 2 T.

 Such fields can only be generated by the use of

high H field (Magnetic field intensity), produced
in solenoids , but the energy consumption is
extremely high, and there are problems in
cooling the solenoid.
814
 In HGMS, the magnetic force is incrased by
increasing the value of the magnetic field
gradient. Uniform field of a solenoid is used. The
core or working volume, is filled with a matrix of
secondary poles (wire wood). (wire wood is filling
only about 10 % of the working volume ).

 Each secondary pole, can produce a maximum

field strength of 2T, but more importantly, each
pole produces in its immediate vicinity, high field
gradient of up to 1 T/mm.

815
 The matrix is held in a canister into which the
slurry is fed. The particles are captured.
Periodically, the magnetic field can be
removed and the matrix flushed with water to
remove the captured material.

 Anincrease in field gradient necessarily

reduces the working gap between secondary
poles. Therefore, the matrix separators are
best suited to very fine particles treatment.

816
 e.g., They are used mainly in the kaolin
industry, for removing micron sized
particles which contain iron.
 In USA and in UK (Cornwall) separator with
2 m diameter basket which contains
ferromagnetic matrix, are in commercial
use.
Field : 2 T, capacity 10 – 80 tph. (for clay
purification). Future use may be for
desulphurization of coals.
817
SUPERCONDUCTING SEPARATORS
 Special alloys which do not present any
resistance to electric current are used at
extremely low temperature. e.g., Niobium –
tantalum at 4.2 K (the temperature of liquid He)
 Once a current commences to flow through a
coil, which was made of superconducting
material, it will continue to flow without being
connected to a power source, the coil will
become a permanent magnet.

 Superconducting magnets can produce magnetic

fields up to 15 T. 818
 Example : Eriez Magnetics (superconducting
HGMS) process kaolinite clay in U.S.
 This machine use only 0,007 kW in producing 5 T;
the ancient equipment require 20 kW.
 Conventional 2 T HGMS needs about 250 kW.

819
820
821
822
 MAGNETIC SEPARATION

 Magnetic separators exploit the difference in

magnetic properties between the ore minerals.
 They are used :
1. To separate valuable mineral from the non-
magnetic gangue (i.e., magnetite from quartz)
2. To remove magnetic contaminants from non-
magnetic valuable mineral (i.e., magnetic
impurity from clay or cassiterite or wolframite)

823
 All materials are affected in some way when placed
in a magnetic field. ( Sometimes , it may be too
slight to be detected). Materials can be classified
according to whether they are attracted or repelled
by a magnet.
Diamagnetics :
Repelled along the lines of magnetic
force to a point of minimum field
intensity
 Materials

Paramagnetics:
Attracted along the lines of
magnetic force to a points of
824

greater field intensity.

 Paramagnetic minerals : They can be
concentrated by high-intensity magnetic
separators.

 Ilmenite : FeTiO3
Rutile : TiO2
Wolframite : (Fe,Mn)WO4
Monazite : (Ce,La,Th,Y) PO4
Siderite : FeCO3
Pyrrhotite : FeS
Chromite : (FeO)(Cr2 O3)
Hematite : Fe2 O3
Manganese minerals
825
 Some elements are themselves paramagnetic,
such as Ni, Co, Mn, Cr, Ce, Ti and Pt group
metals.
 Ferromagnetism : special case of paramagnetism.
Have very high susceptibility to magnetic forces.
Can be concentrated in low-intensity magnetic
separators. (i.e., Fe3O4 – Tramp iron )
 Remanence : magnetism retained when removed
from the magnetic field (Ferromagnetic minerals
show remanence property)
 Hematite (Fe3O4 ) and siderite (FeCO3) can be
roasted to produce magnetite. 826
 The unit of measurement of magnetic flux density
(or magnetic induction )(B) is the Tesla (T).
 B = Nm of lines of forces passing through a unit
area of material.

 The magnetising force which induces the lines of

force through a material is called the Field
Intensity (H) = ampere /metre
(1 ampere /metre = 4 x 10 – 7 Tesla)

827
 The Intensity of Magnetisation (M) (ampere /metre) of
a material relates to the magnetisation induced in the
material, and :
B   0 H  M 
 0  Permeabili ty of free space
-7
( 4 x 10 T m /A)

 In vacuum µ =0
In air , µ is very low
B = µ0 H means B=H
828
 Thevalue of field intensity (H) is virtually the
same as flux density (B), and the term
magnetic field intensity is then often loosely
used.

 However, particularly ferromagnetics, the

value of flux density B is much higher than
field density (H) which term is used should be
specified.
829
 Magnetic Susceptibility (S) is the ratio of the
imtensity of magnetisation produced in the
material to the magnetic field.
M
S 
H

B = µ0 ( H + M )
B = µ0 ( H + SH )
B = µ0 H ( 1+ S)
B = µ0 µ H
1 + S = µ Relative permeability (dimentionless)
830
 For paramagnetic materials, S is a small positive
constant
 For diamagnetic materials, S is a negative constant
For Hematite, S = 0,01
For Quartz, S = - 0,001
 The magnetic susceptibility of a ferromagnetic
material is dependent on the magnetic field ,
decreasing with field strength as it is saturated.
 At an applied field of 1 Tesla, S = 0,35
at 1,5 Tesla, saturation
 Iron cores or frames used in high intensity
magnetic separators, iron saturates at 2 – 2,5 T, so
the use of very large currents ( hundreds of
amperes) is necessary. 831
 The capacity of a magnet to lift a mineral is
dependent
1. The value of field intensity
2. Field gradient

 Field Gradient = The rate at which the field

dH
intensity increases towards the magnet
F H
dL surface

= dH / dl
 F : Force on the particle
(or lifting force )
H : Field intensity
832
MAGNETIC SEPARATORS

Low intensity
 Magnetic separators

High intensity
and

Dry Separators

Wet Separators
833
 Requirement :
Steep field gradient in a high – intensity field

 Methods to produce steep field gradient are:

1. By using a pole which is constructed of alternate

magnetic and non-magnetic laminations
2. By producing a converging field

834
 Converging field is produced by providing a V-shaped
pole above a flat pole. Upper pole concentrates the
magnetic flux into a smaal area giving high intensity.
The lower flat pole has the same total magnetic flux
distributed over a larger area.

 There is a steep field gradient across the gap.

835
 Magnetic field intensity can be regulated by :

1. Varying the current (especially in

electromagnetic separators)
2. By changing the interpole distance (in
permanent magnets)

 In commercial magnetic separators

(continuous – process), the separation is
carried out on a moving stream of particles
passing (through or into) the magnetic field.

836
 When a ferromagnetic particle is introduced
into a magnetic field, the lines of force
concentrates (converge to the particle) and
the particle behaves as magnet. Magnetic
flocculation or agglomeration of the particles
can occur if they are small.

 Itis a serious problem especially with dry

separating machines (they can entrain gangue
particles, reducing the efficiency).

837
 Flocculation is minimised by passing the
material through consecutive magnetic fields
(successive reversal of the polarity).

 For collection of magnetic and non-magnetic

fractions, most separators are designed so that
the magnetics are attracted to the pole
pieces, but come into contact with the
conveying device (not directly the pole-piece).

 The non-magnetics fall freely into a bin.

838
TYPE OF MAGNETIC SEPARATOR

 Can be classified into :

1. a) Low intensity
b) High intensity

2. i) Dry feed
ii) Wet feed

839
LOW INTENSITY MAGNETIC SEPARATION

 DryLow Intensity Magnetic Separator =

Cobbing
 Cobbing is concentration of coarse
particles which are strongly magnetic.
Cobbing can be carried out in drum
separator.
 Below 0,5 cm size range, dry separation
tends to be replaced by wet methods,
which produce much less dust loss, and
usually a cleaner product.
840
 Low intensity wet magnetic separation is widely
used for purifying (regeneration) the magnetic
medium in the HMS Process.

 Crockett Separator : LIWMS

 An endless belt is dipped into the trough into

which the pulp is fed.
 The magnetic particles are picked up (lifted) by
a bank of magnet and then carried to the
concentrate discharge (water spray wash the
concentrate)
 The magnets have alternating polarity so that
entrained gangue particles released.
841
842
 DRUM SEPARATORS (LIWMS)

 Used for concentrating finely ground iron ore,

and for cleaning the medium in HMS circuit.
 They consists essentially a rotating non-
magnetic drum containing 3 to 6 stationary
magnets of alternating polarity.
 Magnetic particles are lifted by the magnets and
pinned to the drum and are conveyed out of the
field, leaving the gangue in the tailing
compartment.
 Water is introduced into the machine to keep
the pulp in suspension.
 Field intensity up to 0,7 T
843
 Concurrent type :
rotation of drum and feed flow are
in the same direction. Produces
clean magnetic concentrate,
especially in HMS c,rcuit.
 Drum Separator Relatively for coarse material.

Counter current type :

Tailings flow in the
opposite direction to the
rotation
844
 Counter current separator is used in roughing
operations and magnetic material losses are held to a
minimum. Relatively for fine material < 250 µm.

 Drum separators are widely used to treat taconite ores,

containing 40 – 50 % Fe as magnetite, or sometimes
hematite which needs fine grinding.

845
Cross – Belt Separator

 Used to concentrate moderately magnetic

ores.
 Itconsists of two or more horseshoe
electromagnets, arranged one above the
other. The cross – belts prevent the
magnetic particles from adhering to the
pole.
 The poles of the upper magnets are wedge
shaped while the lower poles are flat

846
847
848
Counter- current separator

849
850
851
 Disc Separator (Boxmag Rapid Ltd)
 Itpermits a much smaller air gap than the belt
separator and a greater degree of selectivity.

 Itconsists of a series of discs, incorporating

concentrating grooves, revolving above a conveyor
belt, magnetised by induction from a powerful
stationary electromagnets situated below the belt.

 Each disc permits to extract and separate 2-products

of different permeability.
 Progressive intensification of the magnetic field is
obtained by vertical adjustment of the discs (gap)
 The flux is  0,8 – 1,5 T (which is strong enough to
852

pick up many paramagnetic minerals).

HIGH INTENSITY MAGNETIC SEPARATORS

 Highintensity fields of 2T are used to

extract very weakly paramagnetic
minerals.

853
Induced roll separators

 To treat beach sands, tin ores, wolframite,

glass sands and phoshate rock.

 Field strengths of up to 2,2 T are

attainable in the gap between the feed
pole and roll.

 The gap between the feed pole rotor is

adjustable and is usually decreased from
pole to pole to take off successively more
weakly magnetic products.
854
 Permroll
 Permroll
is a roll separator which uses powerful
permanent magnets.

 The magnetic field is generated without an air gap,

and the separator is able to handle highly magnetic
as well as weakly paramagnetic.

 InPermroll, the belt passes over the magnetic roll,

preventing direct roll -particle contact.

 Dry HIMS is limited to ores containing little material

< 75 µm. The efficiency of separation on fine
material is severely reduced by the effects of air
currents, particle – particle adhesion, and particle –
855

rotor adhesion.
 Continuous HIWMS : Reduces the minimum
particle size for efficient separation. Expensive
drying operations can be eliminate.

 Gill Separator : Designed on the principle of the

induced roll machines. The laminated grooved
rotor rotates about a vertical axis at the centre
of a set of electromagnetic pole pieces.
 The feed slurry flows down along the grooves
between the pole piece and the rotor.
 It generates a maximum field of < 1,4 T
 Ex : Used in Australia and Malaysia for
separating highly magnetic ilmenite, but it will
not treat weakly magnetic hematite ores
effectively. 856
 Jones HIWMS : The most well known separator to
treat fine hematite ores.

 The magnet yokes are welded to strong main

frame, with the electromagnetic coils enclosed in
air cooled cases.
 The actual separation takes place in the plate
boxes which are on the periphery of one or two
rotors attached to the central roller shaft.
 The feed slurry flows into plate boxes which are
grooved.
 Feed points are at the leading edges of the
magnetic field.
 Each rotor has two symmetrically disposed points.
857
 Any entrained non-magnetics are washed out by
low pressure water.
 When the plate boxes reach a point midway
between the two magnetic poles, where the
magnetic field is essentially zero, the magnetic
particles are washed out with high pressure
water spray.

 Field intensities of over 2T can be produced in

these machines.
 For 1,5 T field, electrical power consumption in
the coils of 16 kW / pole.
 4 tons of water is used per tonne of solids (90 %
of water is recycled ).
858
 Disadvantages :
 Very high capital cost (cost of flotation
equipment to concentrate weakly magnetic
ore is  20 % of a Jones separator)
Total cost depends on terms for capital
depreciation.

 Over 10 years, HIMS may be the most

attractive process.
 Example : One of the largest applications is
in Brazil.120 tph of - 150 µm
specular hematite ore.
859
 Application of Wet HIMS
1. Recovery of hematite.
2. Magnetic impurity from cassiterite concentrate.
3. Removal of fine magnetic impurities from
asbestos.
4. Removal of fine magnetic impurities from
scheelite concentrates.
5. Purification of talc
6. Recovery of wolframite and non-sulphide Mo –
bearing minerals from flotation tailings
7. Treatment of heavy mineral beach sands.
8. Recovery of Au and Uranium from cyanidation
residue (Fe coating) 860
High Gradient Magnetic Separator (HGMS)

 Used to separate very feebly magnetic particles.

 In the conventional HIMS , the working field occurs in

air gaps in the magnetic circuit. The volume of iron
required is many times greater than the gap volume
where separation takes place.

861
 They tend to be very massive and heavy in
relation to their capacity (sometimes over 200
tons of iron are used). Hence capital and
installation costs are high.

 Asiron saturates at  2 – 2,5 T, conventional iron

circuits are of little value for generating field
above 2 T.

 Such fields can only be generated by the use of

high H field (Magnetic field intensity), produced
in solenoids , but the energy consumption is
extremely high, and there are problems in
cooling the solenoid.
862
 In HGMS, the magnetic force is incrased by
increasing the value of the magnetic field
gradient. Uniform field of a solenoid is used. The
core or working volume, is filled with a matrix of
secondary poles (wire wood). (wire wood is filling
only about 10 % of the working volume ).

 Each secondary pole, can produce a maximum

field strength of 2T, but more importantly, each
pole produces in its immediate vicinity, high field
gradient of up to 1 T/mm.

863
 The matrix is held in a canister into which the
slurry is fed. The particles are captured.
Periodically, the magnetic field can be
removed and the matrix flushed with water to
remove the captured material.

 Anincrease in field gradient necessarily

reduces the working gap between secondary
poles. Therefore, the matrix separators are
best suited to very fine particles treatment.

864
 e.g., They are used mainly in the kaolin
industry, for removing micron sized
particles which contain iron.
 In USA and in UK (Cornwall) separator with
2 m diameter basket which contains
ferromagnetic matrix, are in commercial
use.
Field : 2 T, capacity 10 – 80 tph. (for clay
purification). Future use may be for
desulphurization of coals.
865
SUPERCONDUCTING SEPARATORS
 Special alloys which do not present any
resistance to electric current are used at
extremely low temperature. e.g., Niobium –
tantalum at 4.2 K (the temperature of liquid He)
 Once a current commences to flow through a
coil, which was made of superconducting
material, it will continue to flow without being
connected to a power source, the coil will
become a permanent magnet.

 Superconducting magnets can produce magnetic

fields up to 15 T. 866
 Example : Eriez Magnetics (superconducting
HGMS) process kaolinite clay in U.S.
 This machine use only 0,007 kW in producing 5 T;
the ancient equipment require 20 kW.
 Conventional 2 T HGMS needs about 250 kW.

867
868
869
870
 HIGH TENSION SEPARATORS (Electrostatic
Separation)
 High tension separation utilises the difference in
electrical conductivity between the various minerals
in the feed.
 Limitations :
1. Its greatest use is in separating some of the minerals
found in heavy sands from beach or stream placers
(alluvial deposits)
2. The feed must be perfectly dry.
3. The capacity is very small for finely divided material.
( For most efficient operation, the feed should be in a
layer; one particle deep; the through put is severely
restricts if the particles are small, i.e., 75 µm).
871
 Feed size (500 µm – 60 µm). Particles gain
(acquire) the charge by conductance ; by ion
bombardment, by friction.

 Liftingeffect (kaldırma):
The attraction of particles carrying one kind
of charge toward on electrode of the opposite
charge.

 Pinning effect (yapıştırma):

Non-conducting mineral particles, having
received a surface charge from the electrode,
retain this charge and are pinned to the
oppositely charged separator surface by + / -
attraction. 872
 There are 2 basic types of electostatic
separator :
1. Electro – static Separators (old)

Plate
Rotor type Plate type
2. Screen
Electro – dynamic Separators (today)

873
 Corona Effect :

An electrode assembly, comprising a brass

tube in front of which is supported a length of
fine wire, is supplied with DC current up to 50
kV (create very dense high voltage discharge
and thin wire tends to discharge it, when
ionization occurs, the minerals receive a spray
of electricity and gain charge). The voltage is
so that ionization of air takes place. This can
be seen as visible corona discharge

874
 Electro – static Rotor Type Separator
(Acquiring surface charge by conductance)

Acquiring surface
charge by
conductance.

875
 There is a large single producing an electric
field (there is no ionizing electrode).
 Particlesare placed on the grounded rotor in
the presence of electric field. Particles
develops a surface charge by induction, they
are polarized.
 Conductors have the same potential as the
grounded rotor, they are attracted toward
the electrode.
 Non- conductors fall by their gravity.
876
Electro–static Plate Type Separator
(used to clean small amount of NC from a
predominantly conducting feed)

877

Tube Electrode : Create non-discharging field.

 The feed particles slide down a ground plate
into the divergent electric field induced by
the large curved electrode.
 The particles are charged by induction; the
conductor particles acquiring a charge
opposite to the electrode.
 Thus, the conductor particles are attracted
towards the electrode the non conductors
continue down the plate or through the
screen.

878
Electro – static Screen Type Separator

879
 Forcleaning of small quantity of conductors
from large amount of non-conductors.(fine
particles are affected by the weak forces).

(use for remove small amount of conductors from

mainly NC)

880
Electro-dynamic Electrostatic Separator (Ion bombardment)

881
 The feed is carried by the grounded rotor into the
field of a charged ionizing electrode.
 The feed particles accept a charge by ion
bombardment.
 The conductor particles lose their charge to the
grounded rotor and thrown from the rotor surface by
centrifugal force, and they come under the
influence of nonionizing electrode and are attracted
further from the rotor.

 As the rotor carries the non-conductor particles on

its surface, their charge is slowly lost (or they retain
the charge) and thus held to the surface (pinned).
882
 NC is negatively charged, rotor surface is
positively charged, NC is pinned to the
oppositely charged surface by + / - attraction.

 Difference in wire and tube electrode:

Fine wire tends to discharge readily; whereas
the large tube tends to have a short , dense,
non-discharging field.

883
Behaviour of Mineras in High Tension Separators
Minerals pinned to rotor Minerals thrown from rotor
(Non conductor = Insulator) (Conductors)
Apatite Cassiterite
Barite Chromite
Calcite Diamond
Corundum Fluorspar
Garnet Galena
Monozite Gold
Quartz Hematite
Zirkon Limonite
Scheelite Pyrite
Gypsum Sphalerite
Wolframite
Rutile 884
Typical Beach Sand Minerals

Magnetics Non – Magnetics

Magnetite (T) Rutile (T)

Ilmenite (T) Zirkon (P)

Garnet (P) Quartz (P)

Monazite (P)

885
Typical Beach Sand Treatment

886
887
888
889
DEWATERING (Solid –
Liquid Separation)

 Classified into 3 groups

1. Sedimentation (Thickening , 55 – 65 % solid)

2. Filtration (80 – 90 % solid by weight)
3. Thermal drying ( > 95 % solid)

890
 Sedimentation is most efficient when there is
a large density difference between liquid and
solid.
 Sedimentation can not be (always) applied in
hydrometallurgical processes, because the
carrier liquid may be a high grade leach liquor
having a density approaching that of the
solids.
 In such cases, filtration may be necessary.

891
Sedimentation

 Produces a clarified liquid which can be

decanted, and a thickened slurry which may
require further dewatering by filtration.

 Thesettling rate of particles in a fluid are

governed by Stokes’ or Newton’s laws, depending
on the particle size.

 Very fine particles (a few microns diameter)

settle slowly by gravity alone, and centrifugal
sedimentation may have to be performed.
ALTERNATIVELY, the particles may be
agglomerated, or flocculated, that settle out
892

more rapidly (flocs formation).

 Flocculation : Agglomeration by using high
molecular weight, water soluble polymers (of
the type as polyacrylamides)

 Coagulation : Agglomeration by the use of

inorganic salts.

893
 In coagulation, all the particles exert mutual
attraction forces, known as London – Van der
Waals’ forces, which are effective only at
very close range.
 Normally, the adhesion is prevented due to
the electrically charged atmosphere.
 The repulsion forces not only prevent
coagulation of the particles, but also retard
their settlement.

894
 Coagulations are electrolytes having an
opposite charge to the particles, thus
causing charge neutralization, allowing the
particles to come into contact and adhere as
a result of molecular forces.

 Inorganic salts have been used for this

purpose. Salts containing highly charged
cations, such as Al3+, Fe3+ and Ca2+ are mainly
used. Lime, H2SO4, depending on the surface
charge of the particles, can also be used to
cause coagulation.
895
 Mostpronounced coagulation accurs when
the particles have zero charge in relation to
the suspending medium, this occuring when
the zeta potential is zero.

 No repulsive forces at ZPC, the particles

collisions result due to Brownian motion.

896
Flocculation

 Itinvolves the formation of much more

open agglomerates than those resulting
from coagulation. The reagent acts as
bridges between separate particles.
 The reagents are long – chain organic
polymers, which were formely natural
materials such as starch, glue, gelatine,
and guar gum, but which are now
synthetic materials, termed
polyelectrolytes.
897
 Polyelectrolytes:

1. Anionic Higher molecular weight and less

2. Cationic expensive than the others.
3. Non - ionic

898
 Polyacrylamides which vary widely in
molecular weight and charge density, are
extensively used as flocculants.
 The charge density refers to the percentage
of the acrylic monomer segments which carry
a charge.

899
 Forthe bridging role of the flocculant,
charge neutralization is not necessary. For
bridging, the polymer must be strongly
adsorbed (and this is promoted by chemical
groups such as amide) on the surface of the
particle, leaving a large portion of the
molecule free to be adsorbed on another
particle, so forming an actual molecular
linkage or bridge between particles.

900
901
 The factors influencing the degree of
flocculation are:

1. The efficiency or strength of adsorbtion of

the polymer on the surface.
2. The degree of agitation during flocculation
(subsequent agitation breakdown of flocs).

902
 Dosage of flocculants is important. Excess
polymer can cause dispersion of the particles
due to floc breakdown. (Due to the fragile
nature of the flocs, hydrocyclones and
pumping can destroy the flocs due to rupture
of the long – chain molecules).

 Polyelectrolytes are made up to stock

solutions of 0,5 – 1 % which are dilute to 0,1 %
before adding to the slurry.

903
 Selective Flocculation
 In the treatment of ultra fine particles or slimes.
 The mineral mixture is dispersed first, then by the
addition of a high molecular weight polymer which
selectively adsorbs on only one kind of the
constituents of the mixture, selective flocculation
takes place.

 Selective flocculation is then followed by removal

of the flocs of one component from the dispersion.
(e.g., hematite selective flocculation from fine
silica by using a corn – starch which selectively
flocculates the hematite)
(Caustic soda and Na2SiO3 are used to disperse fine
904

silica)
GRAVITY SEDIMENTATION (Thickening)

 Thickening is defined as removing a

portion of the liquid from a slurry or
suspension, thereby concentrating the
solid particles into the remainder.

 Ingravitational thickening, it is
achieved by allowing the solids to settle
under the influence of gravity in a
sedimentation basin.
905
 The original liquid which is essentially
depleted of solids flows to an overflow point
or launder system. The settled and
thickened solids are scraped to a discharge
point where they are taken as underflo0w.
The underflow is withdrawn by pumping
which is diaphragm type.

A thickener consists of a cylindrical tank, the

diameter ranging from about 2 m to 200 m
and of depth 1 – 7 m.

906
 Pulp is fed into the center via a feed well
placed up to 1 m below the surface (to cause
little disturbance)
 There are one or more rotating radical arms
and a series of blades attached to them. (to
rake the settled solids towards the central
outlet).
 The blades assits the compaction of the
settled particles and produce a thicker
underflow.

907
 Onmost modern thickeners, these arms rise
automatically if the torque exceeds a certain
value, thus preventing damage due to
overloading.

 Thespeed of raking mechanism is normally 8

m/min at the perimeter, which corresponds 10
rph for a 15 m  thickener.

 Power consumption is low (e.g., 10 Kw motor

for a 60 m unit), wear and meintenance costs
are low.
908
 The
method of supporting the drive head
mechanism depends on the tank diameter.

 Forsmall thickeners of  < 45 m , the drive

head is supported on a superstructure
spanning the tank, with the arms being
attachment to the drive shaft (bridge or
beam thickeners)

 Forlarger thickeners of  up to 180 m , drive

head is supported on a stationary steal or
concrete centre column. The rake arms are
attached to a drive cage, surrounding the
central column.
909
 * Thickeners are constructed steel,
A : Clear solution zone
B : Hindered Settling zone concrete, or a combination of both.
C : Transition zone Steel is economical if < 25 m.
D : Compression zone The bottom of the tank is often
flat. Settled solid from a false
910

sloping floor.
Determination of surface area of a thickener
 Coe and Clevenger method :

A
F  D  W
R 

F : Initial (feed) density (liquid/so lid, by weight)

D : Final (discharge ) density (liquid/so lid, by weight)
W : Dry solids fed to the thickener (tph)
 : Specific gravity of liquid (kg /l)
R : Settling rate (mph)
(Condition : The upward velocity must not
exceed the settling rate of the solids) 911
 or

1,33  F  D 
A
R

F : lb of liquid per lb of dry solids

R : ft / h
A : ft 2 / dry ton /d ay
912
 Problem
 Feed : 18,8 % solid by weight
Temp. : 23  C
Underflow : 61,6 % solid by weight
R : 0,72 m / h

913
 Sedimentation rate data :

Seetling time (minutes) Clear water height (cm)

0 0
1 1,4
5 6,3
8 9,9
10 12,3
12 14,7
15 18,2
20 23,4
25 26,6
19h 31,1 914
 L 81,2
F   4,31
S 18,8

L 38,4
D   0,62
S 61,6

A
F  D  W 4,31  0,621

R  0,72 1

A  5,125 m 2 915
916
917
 The sedimentation rate is found through
tests in graduated cylinders using dilutions
between F and D (The constant rate mass
settling velocity is determined).

 The dilution corresponding to the max

value of A represents the min solid
handling capacity and is the critical
dilution

918
 Draw settling velocity curves for various
dilutions.
 Therate of fall of the interface between the
pulp and clarified solution being timed.

919
 Once the required surface area is
established, it is necessary to apply a
safety factor to the calculated area.
This should be at least two.

 Conventional thickener has larger

diameter compared with the depth and
therefore a large ground space are
required (Disadvantage).
920
Tray Thickeners

 Installed to save space.

 It is a series of unit thickener mounted
vertically above one another.
 They operate as separate units, but a
common central shaft is utilised to
drive the sets of rakes.

 The major user in the past has been

alumina industry.
921
 Disadvantages :

1. Unit area requirements are 2 times greater

than the unit thickeners.
2. Operating control is more difficult.
3. Underflow solids concentrations are usually
lower.

922
923
High Capacity Thickeners

 Machines are typified by a reduction in unit area

requirement from the conventional installations.
 The feed enters via a hollow drive shaft where
flocculant is added and is rapidly dispersed by
staged mixing mechanism which improve the
effective use of flocculant (A special flocculation
chamber)

 With the growth in flocculant capability,

appreciably lower unit areas can be achieved.
 To increase stability of the compression zone,
sometimes inclined lamella plates are employed at
about 50 to 60. 924
Lamella or Tilted Plate Thickeners

 The idea is based on permitting solids to

settle only a short distance until they reach
an inclined plane.

 Lamella thickener utilises a nest of inclined

parallel plates which reduce settling
distance and increase effective area.

925
 Thefloor space requirement of the lamella
thickener is only about 20 % of that of the
conventional thickener (The effective settling
area is the horizontal projection of these trays
which is Aeff = n. A cos  )

 No raking mechanism is employed .

 Compression is provided by surface load, depth
of solids and retention time. As retention time
is short in lamella thickener, low amplitude
vibrations are employed to the hopper to
provide solid compression and flow by sliding.
926
927
Aeff  n  A  cos 

n : Number of trays
A : Surface area of each plate
 : Angle between trays and the horizontal plane.

928
 Centrifugal Sedimentation
 a-) Flydrocyclones:

Simple, but it suffers from the restrictions with

respect to solid concentrations.
Efficiency falls down even a small diameter cyclone is
used, for very fine particle sizes ( - 10 µm in
diameter)
Flocculation of such particles is not possible, since
high shear forces within the cyclone break up any
agglomerates.

The cyclone is better suited to classification rather

than thickening. 929
 b-) By comparison, centrifuges are more
costly and complex, but have a much greater
clarifying power, and generally more
flexible. Also, much greater solids
concentrations can be obtained, than with
the cyclone.
i.e., Solid bowl scroll centrifuges.

930
 Various types of centrifuge are used industrially,
the Solid bowl scroll centrifuge having widest use
in the minerals industry due to its ability to
discharge the solids continuously

 The basic principles of a typical machine are

shown below. It consists essentially of a
horizontal revolving shell or bowl,
cylindroconical in form, inside which a screw
conveyor of similar section rotates in the same
direction at a slightly higher or lower speed.

931
 The feed pulp is admitted to the bowl through
the centre tube of the revolving screw
conveyor. On leaving the feed pipe the slurry
is immediately subjected to a high centrifugal
force causing the solids to settle on the inner
surface of the bowl at a rate which depends on
the rotational speed , being between 1600 –
8500 rpm.

932
933
 The separated solids are conveyed by the scroll.
 The length of the cyclindrical section determines the
clarifying power.
 The legth of the conical section determines the
residual moisture content of the solids .(a longer
shallow cone is used where maximum dryness is
required)

 Centrifuges are manufactured with bowl diameter

ranging from 15 cm to 150 cm; the length being twice
the diameter.

 Throughputs vary about 0,5 to 50 m3 / h of liquid and

0,25 to 100 t /h of solids (depending on feed
concentration which may be 0,5 – 70 % solids).
 The moisture content in the product is about 5 – 20 %.
934
FILTRATION

 Filtration is the removal of solid particles from a fluid through a

filtering medium on which the solids build up (filter cake). The liquid
which pass through the medium is called filtrate.

935
Factors effecting the rate of filtration

1. The pressure drop from the feed to

the far side of the filter medium.
Pressure drop is achieved in
a- Pressure filters by applying a
positive pressure.
b- Vacuum filters by applying a
vacuum below the medium.
2. The filtering surface area
3. The viscosity of the filtrate
936
4. The resistance of the filter cake
5. The resistance of the filter medium
and initial layers of cake.

 Filtration normally follows thickening.

The thickened pulp fed to storage
agitators from which it is drawn off at
a uniform rate to the filters.
Flocculants are sometimes added to
the agitators in order to aid filtration.
937
 Slimes have an adverse affect on filtration, as
they tend to blind the filter medium. Flocculation
reduces this and increases the voidage between
particles, making filtrate flow easier.

 The lower molecular weight flocculants tend to be

used in filtration, as the flocs formed by high
molecular weight flocculants are relatively large,
and entrain water within the structure, increasing
the moisture content of the cake.

 Other filter aids are used to reduce the liquid

surafce tension, thus assisting flow through the
medium. 938
 The Filter Medium
 For an efficient filtering operation, the choice
of the filter medium is very important.
 The function of filter medium is to support the
filter cake, while the initial layers of cake
provide the true filter.

 The filter medium should be :

1. Mechanically strong
2. To have ability to retain solids without blinding.
3. Corrosion resistant
4. Offer as little resistance to flow of filtrate as
possible. 939
 Relatively coarse materials are used. Clear
filtrate is not obtained until the initial layers
of cake are formed, the initial cloudy filtrate
being recycled.

 Filter media may manufactured from cotton,

wool, linen, jute, nylon, silk, glass fibre,
porous carbon, metals, rayon and other
synthetics.
 Cotton fabrics are most common type because
of their low cost. They can be used to filter
solids as fine as 10 µm.
940
Types of Filter

1. Cake filters : For the recovery of

large amounts of solids from fairly
concentrated slurries.
a-) Pressure type
b-) Vacuum type

2. Screening or Clarification Filters :

For the removal of small amouts of
solid from relatively dilute suspensions.
941
Pressure Filters

 Due to the virtual incompressibility of solids,

filtration under pressure may have
advantages over vacuum.

 Higher flow rates and better washing and

drying may result from the higher pressures.
But, the continuous removal of solids from
the pressure – filter can be extremely
difficult, therefore, most of them operate as
batch units.

942
 Filter presses are the most
frequently used type of pressure
filter.
Plate and frame press

 Filter presses
Chamber press

943
a-) Plate and Frame Press

 Consists of plates and frames. The hollow

frame is separated from the plate by the
filter cloth.
 The filter press is closed by means of a screw
or hydraulic piston device.

 The slurry is introduced to the empty frames

of the press through a continuous channel
formed by the holes in the corners of the
plates and frames.
944
 The
filtrate passes through the cloth and is
removed through a continuous channel.

 The cake remains in the frame and when it is

full, the filter cake can be washed and after
releasing the pressure, the plates and frames
are separated one by one. The filter cake can
be discharged and filter press closed again
and cycled repeated.

945
b-) Chamber Press

 Similar to the plate and frame type.

Here, the filter elements consist solely of
the recessed filter plates. Individual filter
chambers are formed between successive
plates.

 Chamber press filters are widely used for

treating slurries with high solids contents.
They affort easier cake discharge than
plate and frame presses. They are
preferred for dewatering fine tailings in
coal preparation plants.
946
Vacuum Filters

1. Drums
2. Discs Continuous , Leaf filter - Batch
3. Horizontal filters (belt)

947
Drum Filters

 Drum is submerged in the filter trough, into

which the slurry is fed.
 The periphery of the drum is divided into
compartments.
 The drum surface is covered by the filter
medium.

 Operation cycles are :

1. Filtration
2. Drying
3. Discharge 948
 Sometimes, cake washing and cloth
cleaning may be added to the cycles.
 By means of vacuum, the slurry is
filtered. For discharging the solids from
the drum,reversed blast of air is
applied.
 Blast of air lifts the cake so that it can
be removed by a knife.
 Vacuum (barometric leg) should be at
least 10 m high.
949
Disc Filters

 Similar to rotary drum filters.

 The solids cake is formed on both sides of
the disc.

950
Horizontal Belt Filter

 Consists of an endless perforated

rubber drainage deck, supporting a
separate belt made from a filter cloth.
 Slurry flows by gravity on the belt.
Filtration takes place due to vacuum
applied to the suction boxes.
 The cake is dewatered, dried by
drawing air through it, then discharged
as the belt reverses over a small roller.
951
952
953
954