1.

2 AUTHORITY AND POWER

Meaning. Power is the capacity of a person to
influence others and alter their actions, beliefs,
and behaviors. However, it's important to note
that there is a difference between power vs.
influence.
Authority is the legitimate power that a
person or group is granted to practice over
others within an organization.
What is the example of power and authority?
For instance, a person who sees the flashing red and
blue lights of a police car in his rearview mirror
usually pulls to the side of the road without
hesitation. Such a driver most likely assumes that the
police officer behind him serves as a legitimate source
of authority and has the right to pull him over.
What is the relationship between authority and
power?
 Power is an entity's or individual's ability to
control or direct others, while authority is
influence that is predicated on perceived
legitimacy.
 Consequently, power is necessary for authority,
but it is possible to have power without authority.
 Authority refers to the legal power vested in a public
agency and its members to execute the functions for
which it was organized.
 Power can be defined as the force or the ability to
compel others to do what the power holder desires.
Depending on how government applies power and
authority in its workings, it could be legitimate or
illegitimate.
 Legitimate power and authority of government
arises when that government functions within the
limits given to it by the people. Such a type of
government is certainly a democratic one.
 Governments which are undemocratic can have power to
rule but this rule is not legitimate and lacks moral
authority.
 Such governments can have constitutions but not
constitutional rule. Thus, the people are their subjects
and are denied fundamental democratric rights and
freedom.
 A government of this type is repressive and, what exists
is not rule of law but rule of men. The best example of
illegitimate government is Mobutu of Congo
(Zaier),Mobutu‘s experience shows the exercise ofpwer
without authority.
 Democratic Government characterized by
accountability and transparency.
 The practice of transparency gives citizens and media
the opportunity to know how the government is doing
its job.
 Accountability is instrumental to people to check and
control their officials. Thus, transparency and
accountability are tools to check whether the practice of
government officials is in line with, or conforms to, the
limits of the power and authority given to them.
1. The idea of the "common good" suggests that:
A. political decisions will always benefit particular groups.
political decisions should always benefit everyone equally.
political decisions should satisfy the interests of individuals.
political decisions will always benefit the power elite.
political decisions should represent a compromise between the diverse
views of citizens.
2. Developing countries oppose reductions or limitations on their pollution emissions
because:
1.3 CONSTITUTIONAL RIGHTS VERSUS
CONSTITUTIONAL OBLIGATIONS
What are your constitutional rights and obligations?

Constitution is the fundamental law of a country. It defines

 social and state organizations,
 the principles of the electroral system,
 the structure of government bodies and
 the basic rights and duties of citizens.

• Citizens have constitutional rights to enjoy. For example, citizens

right to education, health care and freedom of expressions are
stated in a democratic constitution.
• Constitutional obligations are duties citizens have to respect for
their own well-being and that of society.
• Paying tax, responding to national emergency calls positively and
other duties expected of citizens are part of their obligations.
• As a citizen of this country, you have rights to enjoy and obligations
to observe. So, you have to regard your obligations as good as your
rights.
• A democratic system is not possible without a democratic
constitution.
• Constitutionalism may be defined as an ideology, which advocates
that everything in a state and every action of the government should
be in accordance with the constitution.
• It does not allow unconstitutional practices and extra-
constitutional authorities.
• Constitutionalism limits the powers of the government. In doing so,
it restricts the rights and duties of government and other organs of
the state and its citizens.
 
For example, articles 29 of freedom of speech contain right and
obligation, in order to protect the well being of individual and group.
 1.4 State Power Distribution in Ethiopia

 Until 1995, Ethiopia was a unitary state.

 Most unitary governments in the world monopolize power in the
hands of the executives at the center. However, there are a few
unitary governments which are democratic. The UK one example.
 Where there is a homogenous society it is believed that a unitary
Democratic system of governments fits.
 When a society is composed of culturally heterogeneous groups,
due to the desire to address the cultural differences and promote
their development, a federal system of government may be
preferred.
 The federal system of government can be organized based on
geographical features, such as rivers, mountain chains etc. or on
ethnocultural backgrounds.
 The former gives rise to a territorial based federation and the latter
to an ethnic bvased federation.
 A country with a culturally homogenous population can have
territorial based federation like in Germany.Moreover, the
objective of federal administration is to bring people and regions
closer together to promote development and create a political
community which is unitary in spirit.
 The 1995 Constitution of the country declared Ethiopia a federal
democratic republic with nine Regional States The federal System
of government devolves power to the regions to avoid a
monopoly at the center.
 This shows that a federal system of government has elements of
checks and balances of power between the federal and regional
states.
REMEMBER
 A constitution is the fundamental law of a country.
 Constitutional obligations are duties citizens have to
respect for their own well being and that of society.
 Constitutionalism does not allow unconstitutional
practices and extra constitutional authorities.
 In democratic societies the rights and obligations that
citizens have are kept in balance. A democratic system
is not possible without a democratic constitution.
 A democratic constitution clearly states the rights and
obligations that citizens and their government have.
 1.5 Ethiopian Foreign Relations

 Foreign Relations refer to the external relations of countries.

 This general complex relation involves countries on the one hand and
non- governmental organizations on the other.
 Ethiopia has been involved in such a type of relations for thousands of
years. However, the modern foreign relations of Ethiopia began as
late as the end of the nineteenth century.
 In today‘s world, the actors in foreign relations are states,
international and regional organizations and other nongovernmental
organizations.
 There are rules that guide and give shape to international relations.
These rules are expressed through agreements, conventions and
protocols.
 Foreign Relations of a country are carried out through foreigfn
policy and diplomacy.
 Foreign policy refers to a policy regulating a particular country‘s
relations with other states and peoples in the international arena.
 Foreign policy is based on the domestic policy of a country. When
a change of government occurs in a country, its foreign policy may
change. Cancal;
 Diplomacy is the instrument to execute foreign policy. It refers to
the practiced art of official representation abroad of sovereign
states by persons and organizations specialized in such conduct.
 The basic functions of diplomacy have been to convey and gather
information relevant to a country.
Those working in diplomatic missions assist in the formulation of
foreign policies made by governments in matters of war and
peace.

The 1995 Constitution of Ethiopia has clearly stated the country‘s

foreign policy objectives and principles. It has econbomic,
political and a cultural relationship with many countries. At
present, the principle of Ethiopian foreign policy is based on
coexistence and cooperation between states and peoples.
 
Economic diplomacy, attempts are being made to attrtact foreign
investments to the country.
 Principles for External Relations
Article86
1. To promote policies of foreign relations, based on the protection of
national interests and respect for the sovereignty of the country.
2. To promote mutual respect for national sovereignty and equality of
states and non-interference in the internal affairs of other states.
3. To ensure that the foreign relation policies of the country are based
on mutual interests and equality of states as well as that
international agreements promote the interests of Ethiopia.
4. To observe international agreements which ensure respect for
Ethiopia’s Sovereignty and are not contrary to the interests of its
Peoples.
5. To forge and promote every growing economic union and fraternal
relations of Peoples with Ethiopia’s neighbors and other African
Countries.
6. To seek and support peaceful solutions to international disputes.
  Remember
 
 Foreign relations are the external relations of a country.
 The actors in foreign relations are states, international
and regional organizations and other non-governmental
organizations.
 Foreign policy refers to a policy regulating a particular
country’s relations with other strates and peoples in
treh international arena.
 Foreign policy reflects the domestic policy of a country.
 Diplomacy is the instrument to execute foreign policy.
 Ethiopia’s foreign policy promotes cordinal relationships
with countries for its own quick development as well as
mutual benefits.
UNIT TWO

RULE OF LAW
    

What is the Rule of Law?

• At its most basic level the rule of law is the concept that
both the government and citizens know the law and obey
it.
• However the rule of law is also much larger than this. The
relevance of the rule of law, and an understanding of its
concepts, has its origins in the Magna Carta and
• Under the rule of law, all people should be ruled by just
laws subject to the following principles in the outer rim of
the wheel.
 A good definition of the rule of law that has near
universal acceptance states
“…most of the content of the rule of law can be
summed up in two points:
(1) that the people (including, one should add, the
government) should be ruled by the law and
obey it and
(2) that the law should be such that people will be
able (and, one should add, willing) to beguided
by it.”
 Why is the Rule of Law Important for
Society?
A country that adheres to the rule of law ensures that –
•All persons and organizations including the government

are subject to and accountable to the law

•The law is clear, known, and enforced
•The Court system is independent and resolves disputes in a
fair and public manner
•All persons are presumed innocent until proven otherwise
by a Court
•No person shall be arbitrarily arrested, imprisoned, or
deprived of their property
•Punishment must be determined by a Court and be
proportionate to the offence
As a result it can be said that the rule of law is more than simply the
government and citizens knowing and obeying the law. The rule of
law involves other concepts, such as checks and balances on the use
of government power, the independence of the judiciary, the
presumption of innocence, access to justice, and the right to a fair
trial.
 2.1 Constitutions and Other Laws
 Modern democratic government Modern democratic
governments are established and by a constitution.
 The Constitution is the supreme law of a country. It being a
supreme law, the procedures for making it and amending it are
quite different from those of ordinary laws.
 For example, ordinary laws are usually made by
parliaments.
The responsibility of drawing up a constitution is not normally
given to parliament. It is given to a special body organized for
this purpose, most often known as a “constituent assembly”.
 Constitution writing is something that happens very seldom,
therefore, the body to draft the constitution is not required
permanently. The salient constitutional issues were discussed
throughout the land at the Kebele level and decisions reached.
 
 Cont’d
 These decisions were forwarded to the Constitution
Drafting Commission appointed by the Transitional
Government. A Constituent Assembly was then duly elected,
whose only task was to go through the constitutional draft
and finalize it.
 This Constitution was approved by the 538 members of the
Constituent Assembly on 8 December, 1994 – Hedar 29,
1987 EC.
 The power to amend a constitution may be delegated to
the organ empowered to make ordinary laws – the
parliament.
 The procedures for the amendment remain totally different
from that relating to ordinary laws.
 Ordinary laws may be passed by a simple majority but,the
amendment of a constitution requires a more rigid
procedure.
 
For example, in Ethiopia how the constitution must be amended
is provided in the FDRE Constitution, Article 105 Sub-Article 2:
 Article 105 Sub-Article 2:Amendment of the
Constitution:
2. All provisions of this constitution other than those
specified in Sub- Article 1 of This Article can be
amended only in the following manner:
 
 When the House of Peoples‟ Representatives
and the House of the Federation, in a joint
session, approve a proposed amendment by a
two-thirds majority vote; and
 
 (b) When two-thirds of the Councils of the
members State of the Federation approve the
proposed amendment by majority votes.
The basic differences between the constitution and other laws
can be seen as:
a)A Constitution as a direct reflection of the will of a nation
is a supreme law while an ordinary law is legislation from
the peoples‘ representatives; this implies that all other laws
should confirm to the constitution. Any irregularity leads to
their being null and void.
b)A Constitution is the basis of the legal relations between a
government and its citizens and therefore states only
general principles. The details are left for other laws.
c)A Constitution is a means by which social, political and
economic policies of a government are outlined and these
policies do not chjange so often. When the need arises, a
constitution can be amended subject to procedures, as laid
down in the constitution itself.
d)A Constitution specifies the rights, duties and obligations
of citizens which do not have to be changed as often as
ordinary laws.

All these make it a necessity for a constitution to be formulated

with much more care than ordinary laws so that it serves not
 Hierarchy of Laws

Constitution Supreme low of the land usually made by the consent

of citizen

Ordinary Laws Ordinary laws are enacted through proclamations,

usually made by parliament

Rules and Regulations Subdivided into higher and lower usually

made by council
of Ministers and Prime Minister.
 

NB- The hierarchy of laws is a chain of subordination of laws.

 
 Ordinary Laws are enacted through proclamations,
usually made by parliament. In Ethiopia, they are
made by the House of Peoples‘ Representatives at the
Federal level and the State Councils at the Regional
level.
 
Below are administrative regulations in turn
subdivided into higher and lower depending on the
hierarchy of the administrative organ producing
them. They are made by the
executive/administrative branchy of the
government.
 
At the Federal level, the higher executive powers are
given to the Prime Minister and the Council of
Ministers.
At the Regional level the State Administration is the
Rule of Law and Management of Conflict
 The purpose of rule of law is to protect basic
individual rights by requiring the government to
act in accordance with pre-announced, clear and
general rules that are enforced by impartial
courts in accordance with fair procedures.
 When this fundamental principle of the
Constitution is respected, conflicts will be
managed or minimized easily and peace and
security maintained.
 Conflict is caused when two or more parties
perceive that their interests are incompatible, and
want to achieve their aims through actions that
damage the interest of the other. These parties
may be individuals, small or large groups or
countries.
 Conflicts should be handled peacefully through mechanisms
that accommodate competing interests. Various instruments
regulate conflict:
The national constitution and laws, Family and clan structures, and The
court system
Relating to these, procedural justice and alternative means of
conflict management will now be discussed.

Procedural Justice:
 Refers to the right to equality in the processes that
guarantee all persons equal procedural opportunities within
the law.
 The minimum procedural justice is that parties in conflict,
whose rights are affected, have the right to be heard without
discrimination on grounds of race, color, sex, language,
religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin,
wealth, birth, status etc. (Articles 19 and 20).
  Negotiation, mediation, arbitration and
litigation are the alternative means of
peacefully settling disputes.
 The first three deal with the issues without
recourse to law.
 They are considered to be cheaper and quicker
than a formal law case.
 They may also enable a matter to be settled with
less anger and bitterness.

1.Negotiation: This is one of the most common

peaceful ways of settling a dispute. It involved
direct discussion between or among the
parties to the dispute with the objective or
reaching an agreement. Nop outside party is
involved in the process. In international relations,
the essence of negotiation is the practie of
 2. Mediation: After negotiation, mediation is
another
mechanism to resolve a dispute fairly and
peacefully.
 Mediation is a method of non- binding dispute
resolution involving a neutral third party who
tries to help the disputing parties reach a mutually
agreeable solution.
 It is a procedure involving the suggestion of terms
of settlement by a third party.
 The mediator enters into negotiations between
disputants seeking terms of compromise
acceptable to both.
 An effective mediator may not impose his/her will
upon the parties; if he/she does, it could lead to
loss of confidence.
4. Arbitration: This is a means of applying legal
principles to a controversy within limits previously
agreed upon by the disputing parties. A panel of
judges or arbitrators is created, either by special
agreement of the parties, or by an existing mutual
treaty. The disputants also agree in advance to be
bound by the decision.
 
5. Litigation: This is a process of carrying on a suit
before the court. That means it is a proceeding by a
party or parties against another in a court of law. This
is different from the above peaceful mechanism of
dispute settlement. It is based on formal established
procedural rules, customs or practices of conflict
resolution mechanism.
SOME PRACTICAL CAUSES/REASONS OF
CONFLICT:
  Interests can diverge for many reasons; the
following are the main causes:
 Resources – territory, water, energy sources,
food (and how they should be distributed) and
money;
 Power – how control and participation in
political decision- making are allocated;
 Identity – concerning the cultural, social and
political communities to which people feel tied;
 Status – whether people believe they are
treated with respect and dignity and whether
their traditions and social positions are
respected;
 Values and beliefs – particularly those
embodied in systems of government, religion,
or ideology.
 The meaning and making of laws and
rules.
Laws are considered as primary legislation or
proclamation enacted by the highest
legislative organ of the country called
parliament; The House of Peoples‘ Representatives
at Federal level, and Legislative Council at Regional level.
 
Rules are considered as secondarey legislation enacted by
organs lower than the parliament such as the Council of
Ministers and sometimes by individual Ministries
mandated to do so. Rules cannot contradict ordinary laws
or a proclamation. There are also rules made by
associations that govern the behavior of their members.
 Understanding the law-making process helps us
to identify whether a law is fair, clear, and easy to
follow without contradicting the rule of law and
social values. Therefore, laws and rules must be:
 Fair: Rules and laws must apply impersonally; not to
particular people or groups; partial, just and equitable.
They must be free of bias or prejudice.
 
 Easy to understand: Rules and laws must be stated in a
clear and understandable manner. They must avoid having
too much detail or being too narrow and ambiguous word.
 
 Well designed: Rules and laws must be designed to
achieve political, economic and social development and
need to fit with the changing circumstances. Rules and laws
should not invade rights unless they need to achieve their
basic purposes.
  Clear: Rules and laws should be clear as to what
is expected by the people so that they are able to
conform their conduct accordingly.
 
 Not violating other values: Rules and laws
should not discriminate between cultural groups
or not interfere in the promotion of cultural values.
They should not affect rights to participate, enjoy
and practice in cultural life.
 
 Possible to follow: Rules and Laws need to have
the quality by which persons find them possible to
live up to their expectations. Rules and Laws
which are irrelevant, ambiguous, obstructing
cultural developments are difficult to respect;
consequentially they could be source of
disagreement and instability.
Due process of law
 means, the conduct of legal proceedings
according to established rules and principles
for the protection and enforcement of private
rights, including notice and the right to a fair
hearing before a tribunal with the power to
decide the case.
 The accused person must at all times be given a
proper opportunity to answer the changes
against him or her. The principle of due process
of law has some basic elements.
 The judiciary protects the individual rights mainly through
the principle of due process of law.
i) Habeas corpus

 This is a remedy that is available to a

person who is arrested illegally and/or who
is not brought before a court of law within
the legally prescribed period of time.
 Article 19(4) of the FDRE constitution
provided that all persons have an
inalienable right to petition the court to
order their physical release where the
arresting police officer or the law enforcer
fails to bring them before court within the
prescribed time (48 hours) and to provide
reasons for their arrest.
 
ii) Presumption of innocence

An accused person has a right to be

presumed innocent until a final decision of
court is given.
Article 20(3) of the FDRE Constitution
stipulates that everyone charged with a
criminal offence has the right to be presumed
innocent until proved guilty according to the
law.
This prevents the public authorities from
judging the outcome of the trail before the
court finds the defendant to be guilty or not
guilty.
iii) Fair notice:

 This deals with the summons which must be

written in a language that the defendant can
understand.
 It should also contain the time and the place
where the defendant must present
him/herself.
 
iv) Speedy and public trials:

 An accused person has the right to a quick

public trail, unless the case is related to
national security, public safety (as
determined by law) and to protect the
v) Right to counsel:

 This is the right to be represented by legal

counsel.
 This counsel can be provided by the
defendant or at state expense.
 The service of legal counsel is important
as the defendant will be unlikely to have
the legal knowledge that works in his/her
favor.
 
vi) Right against self-incrimination:

o Under criminal law it is the prosecutor who

has the burden of providing evidence for
the commission of a crime beyond
reasonable doubt.
o Therefore, the defendant has no burden to
prove his innocence.
o Article 19(2) of the FDRE Constitution
provides that the defendant has the right to
remain silent. The court must make it
clear to the
vii) Impartial tribunal:

 This refers to the court being non

partisan in its dealings with a case.
 Article 37(1) of the FDRE Constitution
ensures accessibility of court and
tribunals to all defendants equally
without any distinction as to race,
religion, sex and property.
 At every stage of a trail judges are
obliged to treat parties.
vii) Protection against double jeopardy:

Article 21(3) of the FDRE Constitution state

that, where an individual has been
previously tried and acquitted or convicted,
that person cannot be charged and convicted
again for the same offence.
ix) Right of appeal:

 The accused or the prosecutor, after a

decision has been made by the court, is
entitled to recourse, by way of appeal or
review, to a competent high court.
 The FDRE Constitution, Article 20(6)
provides that All persons have the right of
appeal to the competent court against an order
or a judgment of the court which first heard the
case.
 Rule of Law and Governments
 The rule of law means that the exercise of
powers shall be regulated by law and that
any individual or group shall not be exposed
to the arbitrary will of another.
 Rule of law limits the authority of
government and its officials. They cannot
decide on any matter as they wish. They can
decide only within the limits of the law.
 The rule of law state ―No man is above the
law
Federalism is one form of government where rule
of law is believed to be respected. Based on a
territorial and functional division of powers,
federalism is designed to:

 Establish a dual polity, a two tier governmental

system, with central government at one level
and the regional ones at the other
 Promote heterogeneity
 Harmonize unity with diversity
 Division of power between central and regional
authority, each of which
 has its own independence and works in harmony
with the others.
  The purpose of the division of power is to limit the
power of the federal government, while reserving all
other powers for the regional states which then
continue unhampered as separate sovereignties.
 This legal and important relationship of sharing of
power between the central government and regional
states is well regulated by an instrument known as a
federal constitution.
 The FDRE Constitution clearly demarcates the
spheres of action for each level of government by
formulating an elaborate scheme of distribution of
legislative, executive, and judicial powers between
the federal and the states‘ governments.
 
FDRE Constitution Article 50: Structure of the Organs of State

1. The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiop[ia comprises the Federal

Government and the State Members.

2. The Federal Government and the State shall have legislative, executive and
judicial powers.
1. The House of peoples’ Representatives is the highest authority of the Gederal
Government. The House is responsible to the People. The State Council is the
Highest Organ of State authority. It is resposible to the People of the State.

2. State Government shall be established at State and other administrative levels

that they find necessary. Adequate power shall be granted to the lowest units of
government to enable the people to participate directly in the administration of
such units.

3. The Council has the power of legislation on matters falling under State
jurisdiction. Consistent with the provisions of this Constitution, the Council has
power to draft, adopt and amend the sate constitution.

4. The State administration constitutes the highest organ of executive power.

5. State judicial power is vested in its courts.

6. Federal and State powers are defined by this Constitution. The states shall
respect the powers of the Federal Government. The Federal Government shall
likewise respect the powers of the States.

7. The Federal Government may, when necessary, delegate to the States powers
and functions granted to it by Article 51 of this Constitution.
UNIT THREE
EQUALITY
The History of the Ethiopian Peoples‟ Struggle against
Oppression
In previous history Ethiopian landscape was characterized
by inequality and oppression. Though the highest
proportions of the Ethiopian population were peasants, they
were severely exploited. They were:
 Forced to pay heavy taxes and
 Their feudal lords, and other government officials, took
most of what they produced.
 Suffered from maladministration, corruption and lack of
social services.

They did not remain indifferent to their hardships, but revolted against the injustice
done to them in different ways. The peasants‘ rebellions in Gojam, Bale and Tigray are very
good examples.
1.The Gojam Peasant Rebellion (1968)

 It was one of the strong resistances against the feudal

government.
 The centers of the rebellion were Mota and Dega Damot
provinces.
 The major causes of the rebellion were:
a. The government‘s attempt to increase the amount of taxes.
b. Impose forced contributions to erect a statue of the
emperor.
c. The other cause was maladministration.
 Cont’d
 The people reflected their opposition by rejecting tax
assessors and sending a petition to the emperor.
 When the government failed to respond, the peasants
rebelled.
 The government sent the army and police force and
suppressed the rebellion.
2.The Fist Woyane Movement

 The first Woyane movement took place in Tigray immediately

after the liberation of Ethiopia from Italian occupation (1941).
 The major causes were:
Administrative inefficiency and corruption
Greediness of the army stationed in Raya and Azabo.
Feudalistic conflicts of interest
 The rebels achieved some victories at the beginning such as
at Addis Abun in Temben in 1943.
 Then they controlled towns such as Enda Eyesus, Kwiha and
Mekele. But eventually, the government army and the British
forces using aircraftcrushed the revolt.
 Cont’d

 There were other peasant rebellions in addition to the

Woyane and the Gojam peasant revolts.
 Some of them were theBale peasant rebellion (1963 –
1970) the Yeju peasant uprising (1948 and 1970) and the
Gedeo peasant rebellion (1960).
3.The Outbreak of the Ethiopian Revolution
 The Ethiopian Revolution of 1974 was a result of the combined effects of
the various peasant uprisings and other movements such as the Ethiopian
students movement which strongly challenged the Haile Selassie
Government in the 1960‘s and 1970‘s.
 Their movement eventually was supported by other sectors of the
population such as the taxi drivers. This led to the outbreak of the
Ethiopian Revolution in 1974.
 Though the Ethiopian students played the major role to bring about the end
of the regime, it was the committee of military officers called the Derg that
controlled political power.
 The Derg declared, “Land to the Tiller” in 1975, but it did not bring a
democratic system to the country.
 Rather, it controlled and exercised unlimited power suppressed
oppositions and established a single party system. Because of this, the
peoples of Ethiopia started fighting against the Derg.
4.The Second Woyane Movement (1975 –1991)

 The second Woyane movement was officially launched in

1975 at Dedebit, western Tigray, with the name Hizbawi
Woyane Harnet Tigray, or Tigray Peoples‘ Liberation Front
(TPLF).
 TPLF gained a decisive victory over the Derg forces in Shire
in 1989. Then TPLF and other parties founded Ethiopian
Peoples Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF)to fight the
Derg in well organized way.
 The EPRDF forces eventually defeated the Derg and
removed the military government from power in 1991.
Conflict of Interests
 In this lesson you will discuss conflict of interests related to the
notion of equality on the one hand and individual and group
rights on the other.
 Group rights are rights held by individuals who members of a
particular group. An example of a commonly asserted group
right is;
the right of a nation or a people to self-determination.
 Group rights are also different from human rights because they
are not universal to all human beings.
 Human rights are universal since all human beings are entitled
to human rights just by virtue of being human.
 Group rights may aim at ensuring freedom from
discrimination, or realizing equal opportunity, or attempting to
redress inequality.
 Many countries have provided group rights to support or
protect disadvantaged groups. After the end of the Apartheid
system in South Africa, the South African Government
sought to redress the inequalities which prevailed during the
Apartheid period.
 The Ethiopian context: The FDRE Constitution provides
group rights. It provides for every Nation, Nationality and
People in Ethiopia the right to self-determination, including
the right to secession
 Cont’d
The right to self-determinationincludes the right of
every Nation, Nationality and People:
• To express, develop and promote its culture;
• To preserve its history;
• To the right to self-governance;
• To use their languagefor administration purposes
and schooling.
Equality and the Notion of Affirmative Action
 
 Affirmative action refers to policies designed to remedy
the effects of past discrimination against women, the
disabled, racial groups, religious and ethnic minorities .
 Therefore , affirmative action is important to
compensate for past injustice and discrimination.
 Affirmative action has been practiced in the United
States where blacks, Native Americans, women and
other minority groups suffered from discrimination.
 
Affirmative actions in the United States were aimed at:
• Increasing employment opportunities for minorities;
• Taking positive steps to insure that employees were not
discriminated against because of race, color, ethnic
origin, and creed;
• Providing extra advantage and opportunities to enroll
black, native Americans and women in colleges and
universities;
• Providing financial assistance to students from
minority groups who could not afford to attend
colleges.
 These kinds of assistance helped members of the disadvantaged
groups to achieve more in education and the world of work.
 There are people who consider affirmative action unjust, goes
against the principle of equality and reverse discrimination and,
 but realities indicate; women have historically suffered from
discrimination in many parts of the world.
  Even in the United States where women were:
Not allowed to vote until the 1920 Constitutional Amendment.
American women were; Also victims of discrimination in relation
to employment. For instance women in the United States were
denied the right to serve as judges.
Women have also suffered from discrimination and
injustice in Ethiopia. Though women play a crucial
role in the family and at the community level, their
contribution was undermined.
 
At family level they did not have the right:
to own land and other non-movable assets
they did not have the right to inherit family assets such
as land
At a national level women were:
regarded as second-class citizen
denied the right to have equal opportunities in
education
 Unity in Diversity
 Countries such as India, China, Nigeria and the
United States of America have a wide range of
diversities.
For instance:
There are more than two hundred fifty ethnic
groups in
Nigeria
About 114 languages and 216 dialects are
spoken in India
• Diversity does not stop these countries
from achieving rapid economic
development. For example, India is one
of the countries which have achieved
rapid economic development despite having
so many cultural groups.
• The American population is characterized by racial, ethnic,
cultural and religious diversity. Different racial groups, such as
the white Americans, African Americans, Asian Americans and
native Americans, live and work together in one political and
economic space.
• Despite their racial, ethnic, cultural and religious differences, the
Americans have managed to build their country as the major
power in the world.
• Ethiopia is also a country of religious, linguistic and other cultural
diversities. Though we have many cultural groups, and despite our
diversity, we will need to create a common political and economic
space and work together in the fight against poverty and
backwardness.
• Since unity is strength, this will help us promote our common
interests in a better way, maintaining equality and recognizing our
diversities. Weneed to recognize the importance of maintaining
equality of languages, religions and other cultural traits. That means
we have to avoid considering our language, religion or culture
superior to that of other people.
 • People have a tendency to consider their way of
life to be good, right and even superior to that of
others. This tendency of considering the cultures
of other people inferior is called ethnocentrism.
•  Ethnocentrism is the use of one‘s culture for
judging the life styles of other individuals or
societies that leads to a negative evaluation of
their values, norms and behaviors.
• As a result of ethnocentrism, many European
travelers and writers regarded African societies as
ignorant, backward and primitive, though the reality
is far from this.
• An ethnocentric individual is someone who is
unable or unwilling to look at other cultures in
their own terms. As a result, he or she fails to
understand the true qualities of other cultures.
• Such a person, taking his religion as a point of
reference, may consider the religious practices of
others as backward, primitive or even threatening.
These kinds of judgments may lead to serious
conflicts and bloodshed.
 Anthropologists call this approach of understanding cultures, cultural
relativism.
Cultural relativism refers to:
 Understanding people‘s ways of living from the framework of their
culture. It is the way of understanding culture in its own terms.
 A belief that any particular set of customs, values and norms are
relative to a particular culture and that they can only be understood
and evaluated within that particular cultural context.
 
Cultural relativism has the following major advantages:
 
 It helps us to be less arrogant and more open minded in relation to
other societies and cultures.
 It helps us to understand and appreciate the couture of other peoples.
 It minimizes misunderstandings and conflicts related to
cultural diversity.
UNIT FOUR
JUSTICE
Equity of Benefits and Burdens
In this less you will learn about equity of benefits and
burdens and how this creates a sense of equality.
It is important that people share the benefits and burdens
equally. When the benefits and burdens are distributed
equally:
A sense of belonging to a country, in addition to which,
People live harmoniously.
 This is also related to the idea that those who work had should benefit
more. In the absence of equal distribution of benefits and burdens,
those who shoulder the biggest burden and do not get the biggest
benefit could be hurt.
 In such cases they may resist and may resort to violent means to
restore what is fair. Only when the benefits and burdens are
distributed fairly will there be harmony.
 The contribution of the various peoples of Ethiopia is very important
for all of us. This is because sharing the burden is one of the
requirements needed for development.
 When all people participate in shouldering this burden, and
accordingly reap the benefits, their sense of belonging increases and
life becomes harmonious. 
 One of the means through which governments promote income
equality is by imposing progressive taxation.
Progressive taxation is that those people who earn more
income should be taxed higher than those who earn less. This
means those who earn more, pay more percent of their
income and those who earn less income pay less percentage
of their income.
 
Justice and the Judiciary
 
The judiciary deals with controversies that need to be
resolved and sentences individuals/groups when the law
has been broken. In addition, the judiciary also has a role
in:
Sustaining democracy,
Defending the Constitution and
Upholding international norms and values.
 
1. Sustaining Democracy
 You know that democracy is rule through the consent of the
people. You also know that democracy is based on the
supremacy of the constitution and rule of law.
 The judiciary, as the upholder of these principles, has the
responsibility to restore justice whenever these principles are
violated and whenever a situation occurs that undermines these
elements.
 One of the major elements of a democratic system is, for
example, a free and fair election. If one of the contenders in the
election does something to undermine the other party and
performs an illegal act, the judiciary will intervene and take the
appropriate measures to correct this wrongful act. This indicates
that the judiciary probably plays the biggest role in sustaining a
democratic system.
 
2. Defending the Constitution
 
With the exception of interpreting the Constitution, the judiciary
has the responsibility to defend and enforce it. When there are
issues that are disputed with regards to the constitution they should
be taken to the House of Federation.
 
Apart from these exceptions, it is the mandate of the judiciary to
defend the Constitution. When an individual or an institution acts
unconstitutionally, the judiciary is vested with the power of taking
the appropriate measure according to the stated law that is based on
the Constitution.
3. Upholding international norms and values
  Most of international norms and values are concerned with the
right of individuals. A constitution has a vital role to play in
defending these international norms and values.
  In order for the judiciary to formally defend these international
norms and values they must pass through domestication.
 Domestication is a process where the country officially recognizes
certain international principles as important and includes them in
its own laws. This is usually done by signing international
conventions and approving these in the Parliament to make them
the law of the land.
 In Ethiopia the responsibility for signing the international
conventions and agreements is given to the executive branch of
the government. (Counsel of Ministers). But this agreement has to
be approved by the House of Peoples‘ Representatives. This
approval is called ratification and it must be printed in the official
newspaper Negarit Gazeta.
 
Crime and Justice

  According to John Stuart Mill, crime is the wrongful use of power

or wrongful aggression against someone.
 So corrective justice controls wrongful aggressions and misuse of
power over others Aggression is often caused when there is
inequality of power between individuals. This inequality could be
caused by situations or nature. The instrument through which
corrective justice is dispensed is called Criminal Law.
 There are different types of crimes. These include: genocide, drug
trafficking, terrorism, deliberately transmitting diseases and
corruption.
 

 
1. Genocide:
 
Formally defined, genocide is the act or attempt to exterminate/make
extinct a clan, family or people. It comes from the Greek words
‗genos‟ meaning clan, family or people while „occidio‟ means total
extinction or extermination. This is a type of crime that is
committed with the intent of exterminating a group of people based
on their specific characteristics or identities.
 
Genocide results in killing people, not because they did something
had, but because they belong to a certain race or follows a certain
religion. People who commit this crime do not differentiate adults
from children, making genocide the cruelest type of crime of all.
b. Drug Trafficking:
This is the crime of using, distributing or circulating narcotic drugs.
This crime causes a serious damage to people‘s health.
 
These drugs are usually:
 
 Addictive in their character
 Excessive use of them can cause serious damage to the brain
and certain organs of the body
 Affects the users social life with others
 Impose economic problem and other problems.

Drug trafficking is a criminal offense which affects the social and

economic health of a country.
 
c. Terrorism:
 
Terrorism is the deliberate act of endangering the lives
of people or property, or denying the freedom of a
person or group of persons. It is done to force or coerce
either the government or the people to do something or
stop doing something. Instead of convincing the people
and the government to take a certain action or not to take
a certain action, terrorism resorts to violence to achieve
a goal. As a consequence, there could be a lot of damage
to lives and property.
Deliberate Transmission of Disease:
 
This is another crime that has developed with the expansion of incurable
diseases. The most common of these is HIV/AIDS. Some carriers of the
HIV lose hope and, out of resentment, they try to infect other people.
This is considered as a crime of homicide which is the deliberate murder
of an individual.
In the Ethiopian Penal Code (the law related to the punishment of
crimes) there are two major articles that are related to the deliberate
transmission of disease.
  The first one, Article 503 of the penal code, criminalizes any kind of
deliberate transmission of communicable diseases.
 The other one is Article 521 that relates to the criminalizing of the
causing of death of a human being, no matter what the means.
 
Corruption:
 
Corruption, defined by many countries and international
organizations, is the abuse of public office for private gain. Some
officials abuse their responsibility and use it to personal benefit or to
benefit their family or friends.
This corruption is an international phenomena and no country is
totally free of it.
 It has a lot of negative effects.
  One of the biggest impacts of corruption is that it hinders the
development efforts of a country. This mainly comes through
reduced investment because, when investors come to invest in a
corrupt system, they will be required to pay the corrupt officials to
get the necessary services.
 It undermines the rule of law because corrupt officials tend to do
things illegally against the interest of the public.
 
 Thus, corruption is an evil that countries need to fight to the best
of their abilities.
Through:
• Promulgation of the appropriate laws
• Increasing the scale of punishment
• Creating awareness among people about their rights and
encouraging them to reveal corrupt activities by officials is
also important. Fighting corruption is something that
requires the concerted efforts of all people.
  In Ethiopia, the Federal Ethics and Anti-corruption Commission
have been established to investigate, prosecute, check and prevent
corruption.
 
Having discussed the major types of crime, it is important to discuss the rights of
the accused. When a person is accused it does not automatically mean that he/she
is an offender. It just means that he/she is suspected of committing a crime
and the judiciary is responsible to check whether he/she is in fact a criminal or
not.
 
Article 20 Rights of Persons Accused
 
1.Accused persons have the right to a public trial by an ordinary court of law within
a reasonable time after having been charged. The court may hear cases in a closed
session only with a view to protecting the right to privacy of the parties concerned,
public morals and national security.
 2. Accused persons have the right to be in formed with sufficient particulars of the
charge brought against them and to be given the charge in writing.
 3. During proceedings accused persons have the right to be presumed innocent
until proved guilty according to law and not to be compelled to testify against them.
 
4. Accused persons have the right to full access to any evidence
pr3esented against them, to examine witnesses testifying against them,
to adduce or to have evidence produced in their own defense, and to
obtain the attendance of and examination of witnesses on their behalf
before the court.
5. Accused persons have the right to be represented by legal counsel of
their choice, and, if they do not have sufficient means to pay for it and
miscarriage of justice would result, to be provided with legal
representation at state expense.
 6. All persons have the right of appeal to the competent court against
an order or a judgment of the court which first heard the case.
7. They have the right to request for the assistance of an interpreter at
state expense where the court proceedings are conducted in a language
that they do not understand.
 Unit 5
Patriotism
 1. The Quality of a Patriot
 
The struggle for the respect of human and democratic rights
 Human and democratic rights are incorporated in international
documents such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
(1948) and in constitutions of many countries .
 The human and democratic rights that we talk about today were
not fully respected, even in countries which have a long history of
a democratic culture.
 You discussed in the previous grades that basic political rights,
such as the right to elect or be elected, were limited to certain
categories of people. The poor, women, black and other coloured
people did not enjoy these basic rights in the United States.
Human and democratic rights have been recognized as a
result of a continuous and bitter struggle. The French
Revolution and the American Revolution are good
examples.
The struggles of black people and women in the United
States and other parts of the world are other examples.
Americans as well as the Indians managed to establish
their state on the basis of a modern constitution after a
bitter struggle against the British colonial rule. Civil
activists such as Martin Luther king, Roza Parks,
Mahatma Gandhi etc. had played remarkable roles in
realizing these fundamental rights.
 The struggle of the Ethiopian peoples for equality and
democracy has led to the emergence of a democratic
constitution and the beginning of a democratic process in
Ethiopia. The FDRE Constitution incorporates human and
democratic rights (from Art. 14-28) and (Art. 29-44),
respectively.
 Ethical Behaviours
 Some people use morality and ethics interchangeably as if
they have the same meaning. The two terms have different
meanings though both are related to the idea of good and
bad as well as right and wrong.
 The term ethics comes from the Greek term ethos which
means behavior. It is the philosophical study of human
behavior and motivation.
 Ethics refers to the study of moral standards and how they
affect behavior. Ethics is sometimes called moral
philosophy.
 Morality is a system that tells you how to act whereas
ethics is the study of that system. Morality comes from
‗mores‘ that means custom. It deals with a system of
behavior related to standards of right or wrong.
 Morality is somewhat similar to the principles of virtue
and goodness. Morality is important because it ensures
good and fair relationships. It helps people to act in a
good way which is important to have harmonious
relations and a good society.
 The study of morality is a subset of ethics. It deals
specifically with interpersonal relationships and the
analysis of our duties and rights.
 In short, morality describes the principles that govern
our behavior. Society would lack social order if we did
not govern our behavior by moral principles and if
everybody acted as he or she wished.
 There are widely accepted ethical behaviors which help
create harmonious relationships: Being respectful,
honest, truthful and fairness, civility, truthfulness,
courage… are acceptable behaviors.
Ethiopian History in an International
Perspective
 Ethiopia is a country of ancient history. It is also regarded as a
symbol of independence in Africa.
 Ethiopia was free from colonial rule with the exception of a brief
period of Italian occupation (1936 – 1941). In those five years,
Ethiopian patriots, even in the absence of their Emperor, fought
against the Italian forces.
 Mussolini invaded Ethiopia in 1936 to revenge the humiliating
defeat of the Italian army at the Battle of Adwa (1896).
 The victory of Adwa made Ethiopia the only African country to
successfully defend its independence, defeating a colonial power.
 In addition to defending its independence, Ethiopia has
made significant contributions to the peace and stability
of the world.
 Ethiopia was one of the earliest members of the League
of Nations which was founded in 1920 to maintain
global peace and cooperation.
 Ethiopia became a member of the League in 1923 when
most of the African countries were ruled by European
colonial forces.
 At that time there were two African countries, Liberia
and South Africa, which were members of the League.
The existence of the League of Nations came to an end at the
beginning of the Second World War (1939–1945). The United
Nations (UN) was established at the end of the war in 1945.
Ethiopia was one of the few African countries which were members
of the United Nations at that time. As a member of the UN, Ethiopia
contributed to global peace and stability by sending peacekeeping
forces to South Korea, Congo, Rwanda, Burundi etc. Ethiopia‘s
contribution in other African issues is also great. Addis Ababa is the
hub of African diplomacy and the centre of the African Union (AU)
formerly called the Organization of African Unity (OAU). This is
because Ethiopia was the symbol of independence and anti-colonial
struggle in Africa.
 Moreover, Ethiopia is one of the African countries which
contributed to the foundation of the OAU. Emperor Haile
Selassie I and President Sekou Toure of Guinea made
great efforts to bring together 32 leaders of independent
African countries in Addis Ababa in 1963.
 The OAU was born in Addis Ababa in the presence of
famous African leaders including Kwame Nkrumah of
Ghana, Jomo Kenyatta of Kenya and Abdul Nasser of
Egypt.
 Ethiopia also plays an important role in other regional
organizations such as IGAD (Intergovernmental
Authority on Development) and NEPAD (the New
Partnership for Africa‘s Development).
 3.The Duties of a Patriot Citizen
 Patriotic citizens have various duties and responsibilities. These
duties are related to promoting the public interest at local and
national levels.
 One of the major duties of a patriotic citizen is playing an
exemplary role in defending national security. Citizens can
defend the national security by fighting against the enemy of their
country, keeping state‘s secrets, fighting against terrorism and
other crimes such as drug trafficking and other illegal trades.
 They also work hard to promote productivity and fight against
poverty; take part in voluntary activities to help the needy and
solve community problems.
 Another duty of a patriot is to have pride in one‘s flag because it embodies the
historical, cultural and psychological phenomena of a nation.
 The Ethiopian flag has been in place for many centuries. The flag served as a
symbol of unity against foreign aggression. Today, besides being an instrument
of unity, it should encourage us to overcome our political, economic and social
problems as well as to strengthen our national pride.
In Ethiopia, besides having a federal government flag, each region has a
separate flag.
 Besides protecting the national security and respect for the flag, patriotic citizens
are expected to make other contributions. They develop
skills to understand, evaluate and support government policies and
strategies.
 Unit 6

Responsibility
 1.Shouldering and Executing Responsibility
 The well-being of society is the basis for the wellbeing of its
members and vise-versa. When you act responsibly, there are
many benefits.
 A person who fulfills responsibilities will be able to utilize
his/her own fundamental rights. However, a person who fails
to execute his/her own responsibilities will be unable to use
their rights.
 Fulfilling responsibilities leads to developing a sense of
personal independence, self-accomplishment and belief in
oneself.
 Those citizens who are well aware of their responsibilities can
use their rights and execute their obligations properly. To be
hard working is one of the responsibilities that citizens have
to demonstrate.
2. Costs of Fulfifilling Responsibility on Individuals

 Social life is the outcome of the interactions of

individuals. In the process of these interactions, there
are benefits that individuals enjoy and burdens that
they shoulder.
 Citizens can obtain benefits when running business
or getting job opportunities, but they also have the
responsibility of paying tax commensurate with their
income.
 On the other hand, citizens‘ burdens could range
from respecting the rights of others to defending the
country from external aggression.
 Some people refrain from taking responsibilities for
fear of failure as this can create a psychological
burden on them. This could be taken as a cost as far
as the individuals are concerned.
 When fulfilling public burdens (responsibilities),
some individual interests will have to be sacrificed.
You sacrifice your private interests when you
realize that the collective good is greater than what
is good for the individual.
 In doing so, the interests of society and of the
individual are preserved. This is one of the bases of
social life that helps develop community spirit
which is nurtured on the basis of collective
responsibilities
3.Fulfilling Promises to Promote Understanding in the
International Arena
 Due to the effect of globalization, the world we live in is
increasingly becoming smaller. No one country can afford to
ignore globalization. However, you need the knowledge and
the skills to live in and benefit from this new global reality.
 The pros and cons of a certain area has a cross effects to
another area. Given such a reality, human beings have to be
united to the common cause for peace and prosperity.
 Concerning this, many states are contributing peacekeeping
forces for the UN to stop civil wars and invasions in some
parts of the world.
 Ethiopia has contributed its forces to the UN peacekeeping
missions to different countries in Africa and Asia, as part of
its commitment to collective security.
 The role that Ethiopia plays in the international arena can bear
fruits when its citizens are well aware of what is going on in the
world. This depends on knowledge in politics, and current
affairs.
 There are issues that have international magnitude that affect
humanity in general. For example, tackling global
environmental crises requires global intervention based on
knowledge.
 Issues like poverty, HIV/AIDS, terrorism, environmental
protection etc. Tackling such problems globally unites people
throughout the world for a common cause. This is the basis for
the development of global citizenship.
4. Co-operation among Nations for Mutual Benefits

 There are multiple factors that lead countries to co-operate and

work together for the common good. States form closer
relationships to achieve common objectives.
 Co-operation could be established during war time or in time of
peace. Often, greater co-operation results in greater achievements.
 The relationship between countries is, not only one of co-
operation, but also of competition. Countries compete to advance
national interests which could be in trade and commerce.
Competition has to be supported by co-operation to ease the
potential tension that could arise.
 Countries also co-operate for the equitable use of natural
resources. Cross- boundary rivers create the conditions for
countries to have a special relationship. The Euphrates and
Tigris rivers govern relations between Turkey, Syria and Iraq.
 The Blue Nile River sets a special relation between Ethiopia,
Sudan and Egypt. Ethiopia contributes over 80% of the total
volume of water to the Nile. During the colonial period, Britain
had made an arrangement between Sudan and Egypt for the
use of the Nile River but the agreement unfairly excluded
Ethiopia. The agreement remains unchanged to date. However,
it is now time for a new agreement between Ethiopia, Sudan
and Egypt. Such an agreement is necessary for mutual benefits
and regional stability. Countries also co-operate to protect and
preserve their natural and historical heritages for the benefits
of humanity.
 When countries work together, they can create the synergy to
mitigate the ecological crisis. In this regard, Egypt and Sudan
can jointly work on afforestation and water management
programs to be undertaken in Ethiopia. Such programs will be
of benefit to all three countries. This will allow Sudan and Egypt
to acquire more water to expand their agriculture and minimize
siltation of their dams.
 These programs also have some benefits for Ethiopia. The soil
will be protected from further erosion and thus allow the
country to retain more rainwater for better agriculture.
 Unit 7

In d u strio u sn e ss
 1. Work as Human Necessity
•  People who are successful in their job usually have particular
characteristics.
• These include being socially interactive and enthusiastic about
doing a better job. In addition, they are also more likely to enjoy
more financial gains since they spend more time on their job.
• It is really important to have the right attitude and understanding
about work so that an individual can get the best out of work. In this
lesson, you will discuss the importance of work for the individual.
• Material gain is not the only benefit you get out of work. You should also
have job satisfaction.
• Job satisfaction does not come from the material gain but from the process of
performing the job effectively and finally, the satisfaction that comes after
completing the job and seeing the results.
• A medical doctor, for example, experiences job satisfaction when he or she
treats a patient and when the patients they treat are cured. This is true of any
job.
• A farmer is satisfied when he or she finally collects the crops. A businessman
is satisfied when his business is able to grow. So people engaged in all walks
of life are satisfied when they are able to successfully complete the tasks
assigned to them.
 In order to have job satisfaction there are a few
things to take into consideration.

 The first thing is an interest in the work;

 The second thing is the financial reward;
 The third important factor is career growth;

 The fourth factor is the level of social

interaction in the working environment
2. Factors Determining the World of Work

1. Ethical standards:
• This ethical standard is very important in creating a harmonious
working environment.
• Other standards include: getting to the office on time, avoiding
corruption and respecting each other. These are general ethical
standards that are true of any work.
• Some professions have their own ethical standards that must be
followed strictly for the proper functioning of their jobs. E.g.
confidentiality/ in medical and military streams/.
2. Sexism-

• Sexism is a word that describes work

discrimination based on sex. Traditionally people
assigned different roles to men and women and
this assignment resulted in limiting women only to
certain types of jobs.
• Some people still think women are only suited to
take care of household chores and rear children.
Apart from that there are some jobs that are
considered suited for women like being a
secretary, a nurse and the like.
• Even when they get the chance to be managers,
some of the people they are managing may be
reluctant to respect them.
 Now-a-days, and in the developed world, women
participate in all activities and contribute to the
development of their country.
 Sexism seriously limits the potential of the people
to benefit our society. There are a lot of women
professionals and managers but, because of sexism,
many of them are denied the chance to fully use
their potential and contribute to the development
of their country.
• Developing countries need to make the best use of
their resources, including the potential of women,
to attain sustainable growth and development.
3. Leisure/

• spare time to relax mental and physical sandwich/ is important

but you should choose the right environment to spend that free
time. As described above, you need leisure to help you do
your job well and to socialize. This means the way you spend
your leisure time impacts upon the way you do your work.
1. WORK IN AN INTERNATIONAL
PERSPECTIVE
 
Via hard work, innovation that brought civilization,
developed countries changed their living condition,
making life easier and enjoy with the highest level
and variety of consumptions. In fact, this is it we
aspire to reach and even beyond that state.

All the people who invented things that make life

easier share one common trait: they devoted their
time and committed themselves to achieve their
aims.
Civilization refers to a society or community built on
culture and knowledge.

 To further civilize a nation or state requires updating

culture and knowledge through education.

 On the basis of this knowledge and through hard

work we can further develop our civilization. Those
countries which are developed have realized that
work is important and invest time to come up with
new and better ways of doing things.

 Moreover, innovation creates interdependencies

among states so as to fulfill scarcity of resources,
Globalization has its own merits and demerits
however;
 we have to be able to analyze the importance of
balancing its effects so that the benefits will outweigh
the negative impacts.
 One way to balance the effects of globalization is to
identify the sectors that would be most affected by
it and devise policy measures to protect those
sectors.
 First of all, a study should be conducted in order to
find out which sectors are vulnerable to external
pressures. After that the appropriate policy should
be devised to protect these sectors.
 Unit 8
 

Self-Reliance
8.1 Self-Reliance

 Self-reliance means relying or depending on one’s own abilities

decisions ,in order to make one’s way through life.
 In short it means independence and self-sufficiency or it refers
to the situation where by individuals, groups or nations depend
on their own resources and skills to satisfy their needs.
 No one can exclusively rely on his/her own resources,
knowledge and skills to produce goods and satisfy his/her
needs.
 Characteristics of a self-reliant person:
- have good self-awareness;
- know their good qualities and weaknesses;
- have their own views;

- devote their time and energy to earn their living from

their own efforts and plan for their future;
- have self-confidence, morally sensitive and make good
decisions about their lives as well as the lives of others.
The importance of moral sensitivity:
 Moral sensitivity refers to care and consideration
of issues related to right and wrong decisions or
actions.
 Decision-making requires examining the pros and
cons of the decisions that you make. You need to
question the morality of your decision in order to
take morally sound actions.
 One skill involved in making good moral decisions
is sensitivity to moral issues.
 In many cases, making the right decision requires
a real sensitivity to the moral dimension of the
situation. We can make good decisions when we
 Moral issues surround us all the time. Many decisions
we make have moral importance.

 Some people may ignore the moral significance of a

situation thinking that the decision can be made
based on the available facts. However, it is essential
to be sensitive to the fact that many technical
questions have important moral components.

 The decision made by medical doctors to prescribe

for a particular condition involves making, not just a
technical decision, but also a value judgment
concerning the various issues, side effects and risks.
 The following points are helpful to make morally good decisions:
a. Sensitivity to a range of considerations-Once
an issue has been identified as having moral
importance, the first and perhaps most important
step is considering what should be taken into
account. This includes:
• An awareness of the various parties who will be
affected by the decision taken;
• Sensitivity to the range of values or principles which
might be applied to the issue.
b. Discussion to build consensus- It is also
important to discuss issues having moral
significance.
Discussing morally sensitive issues with other
people has one good advantage. People around
you may agree with your decision; or at least they
may understand your decisions; or they may show
you the different moral dimensions of the issue.
Professionals working together would need these
particular kinds of discussions to reach consensus.
 The advantages of discussing moral issues with
others are:

• Short-term gain: Involving others in our moral

decision making means that other people can
provide insight or experience that is different from
ours. This helps us to make morally sound
decisions.
• Long-term gain: We can improve the quality of
our moral decision- making by listening to the
reasons provided by others and seeing their point
of view. We can often learn much from wise and
experienced persons who make good moral
 Dependenc
y
Dependency is a total reliance of a
person/society/country over the other entities.
 Impacts of dependency:
•  Dependency will reflect at an individual, social,
country and other contexts.
•  Dependency reflected at an individual level-People who
live depending on others suffer from psychological
problems.
• They lack confidence and suffer from feelings of
inferiority.
• They fail to argue in support of their own position and
cannot make free decisions.
• They refrain from forwarding their ideas because they
fear that other people would ridicule them and reject
• A person with good health and physical fitness may
prefer to rely on his/her parents, friends and other
people instead of working hard. This kind of
dependency has a negative economic impact on
individuals and families that support them because
the dependent ones make no contribution and may
develop a dependency syndrome
Social impacts of dependency-

A dependent person may not be socially accepted

among friends and in the community. As members of
society, we occupy a status or social position. Our
status is associated with certain responsibilities,
expectations, behaviors and prestige that influence
our relationships with other people. For instance,
we shoulder responsibilities and get a certain level
of prestige as a result of our occupation. Peoples at
a low social position are not considered as reliable
and trustworthy. Idle people who lead their lives
depending upon others are not considered as full-
fledged members of society
Dependency in the international context- The
problems related to dependency are not
limited to the individual or country. They
also affect the relationship between poor
and rich countries in the international
context. Many scholars and development
theorists argue that poor countries remain
poor because their relationship with the
rich and developed countries is
characterized by exploitation and
dependency.
 There are different explanations regarding the question: why do poor
countries get poorer and remain dependent?
i. Profit extraction and dependency of poor countries-
• Countries that have not been able to industrialize at
a fast pace have not been able to prosper.
• Even though most countries are no longer
oppressed, more advanced countries control the
market, and extract profits from poorer countries for
themselves.
• Poor countries have lost the race and cannot benefit
from trading in the international market.
ii. Debt and dependency of poor countries-
• Debt is one of the major factors that makes poor
countries poorer.
• Countries become more dependent when they have
more debt.
• This situation allows the rich country that provides debt
to dictate their interests on the recipient country.
• The debt acts as an obstacle for the development of the
country in debt.
iii. International market and dependency of poor
countries-
• According to dependency theorists, poverty and
underdevelopment in developing countries are a
result of the dependency of poor countries on the
rich ones of the western world.
• They argue that the world market favors the rich
industrialized countries which import raw materials
cheaply from poor countries and export industrial
goods at high prices.
• Though the poor countries‘ economies have been
integrated in the international market, they cannot
compete in the world market equally with the
wealthier countries. For instance, it is the wealthier
countries that decide the prices of coffee, tea and
other commodities produced by poor countries in
the world market.
• The poor countries have no option other than
accepting these prices because they have very
limited bargaining power.
• Rich countries exercise an indirect control
over the poor countries‘ economies by
controlling the international market. This
means the system of the global market makes
poor countries more and more dependent on
rich countries.
• Like dependent individuals who are unable to be
treated equally, poor countries that are dependent on
wealthy countries cannot maintain their relationship
on an equal basis.
• They play very weak roles in influencing
international politics and, as mentioned above, have
weak bargaining powers.
• Poor countries are not completely free to formulate
their policies independently because the powerful
states may withdraw their support when the policies
made by the poor countries do not suit their
interests.
 Self-reliance and Morally Sound Decision-
making Capacity
 

There are a number of ways of making a decision with

ethical considerations. We will look at three: ethical
relativism, utilitarianism and rights approaches.
i. Ethical Relativism-
• This approach assumes that ‗ethical values and beliefs are
relative to the various individuals and societies that hold them.‘
According to this theory, there is no objective right or wrong
and the issues are often matters on which people hold subjective
opinions;
• morality is simply a function of the moral beliefs that people
have‘. Therefore, people take account of the norms and views of
their society when deciding what is right or wrong.
An example of this is the decision a person makes about
inoculating their child against a disease. If their community
believes that this is best for the child, the parent will go ahead. If
society suspects the motives behind inoculation, the parent‘s
decision would be affected
ii. Utilitarianism-
• This is another theory which considers the consequences of a
particular decision. This is sometimes named the Greatest Happiness
Principle as the outcome of any decision is expected to provide the
most pleasure for the greatest number
of recipients.
• According to utilitarian moral theory, when we evaluate human
acts or practices we consider neither the nature of the acts or practices
nor the motive for which people do what they do.
• By utilitarianism we ought to decide which action or practice is best
by considering the likely or actual consequences of each
alternative.‘ Using the same example, the decision would be made
based on the fact that, if the inoculation/ vaccination / appeared to
save many more children than would be harmed by it, then it should
be given.
iii. The Rights Approach or Kant’s Moral Theory-
• The third approach is a non-consequential theory in that it is not the
end result of an action that determines the decision, but whether the
action itself is perceived to be right.
• We may do what has good results, but if we do so for the wrong
motive, then the act has no moral worth. However, it is not only the
motive that counts for Kant.
• We must also do what is right. The act itself must be morally right.
Both the act and the motive are morally relevant. Using the example
of inoculating a child, the decision here would be influenced by the
belief that it is right to inoculate children against diseases, even if the
outcome results are damaging.
• Although the consequences of the action are out of the control of the
parents, the motive to do what is believed is good for the child is the
main consideration.
iv. Common good approach-
• This approach assumes that we are all member of one community
with the same views about how we want that society to behave.
• Its aim is to ensure that all social rules, activities and organizations
benefit everyone. Originating in the works of philosophers such as
Plato and Aristotle, it was developed further by John Rawls who
defined it as,
• certain general conditions that are... equally to everyone‘s advantage.‖
Examples of the outcomes are ―affordable health care, effective
public safety, peace among nations, a just legal system, and an
unpolluted environment‖
An example of where this approach may be used is in deciding to make
education compulsory for all primary school children and, thus, ensuring
that the resources are made available across the country, possibly at the
expense of other objectives that may satisfy some segments of the
population.
v. Obeying majority rule-
• The need to follow the decision of the majority may be tested when it
is unrepresentative of the different people in society. For this reason,
the electoral or voting system has to be supported by democratic
means.
• Once in place, everyone should uphold the views of the majority even
if they disagree with the verdict.
• Examples can include court verdicts, election outcomes and local
decisions made in school or the kebele. A decision on changing the
school opening times made by a majority of teachers and parents‘
representatives has to be accepted by all students and staff in that
school, regardless of individual feelings. But, even after this, while
executing the majority decision, the minority has the right to pick up
the weaknesses of the decision and try to influence members of the
majority to rethink their decision.
UNIT 9 
SAVING
 1.Methods of Saving
 Proper utilization of resources are very important
b/c the resources we use to satisfy our needs and
wants are scarce.
 They cannot satisfy the unlimited needs and wants
of humans. This calls for the proper utilization of
resources in order to make the best use of them.
 If we utilize our resources properly we can use
them for a longer period and for more people.
 Some of our resources are very scarce and are in
danger of being totally exhausted.
 Besides saving our natural resources, we have to
know how we should use other resources
properly. In order to utilize resources, we need to
plan.
 Planning requires an understanding of what we
want or need and what resources we have. For
example, to have a big house and cars you need
to save a considerable amount.
 If you want to build a business of your own you
should plan accordingly so that you can save
enough to have the sum of money you need.
 There are number of things that are important to
consider before planning your consumption and
saving:
 First and foremost is your level of income. When you
start work in the future you should estimate how
much income you will have. This is the most
important component of your planning since this
amount decides how much you can actually save or
consume.
 The next important thing to consider before
planning saving is that consumption has to be made on
the basis of need.
 It is important to change our attitude towards
consumption. We shouldn‘t consume just because
we have the money or spend impulsively as we
need to identify those things that are necessities.
 Having properly identified those necessities, it will
be easier to estimate how much money is required
to fulfill those needs after which the rest of the
money can be saved.
 For countries, saving is determined by their Gross
Domestic Product (GDP). This measure of income is
very important for a country.
 Countries with a greater GDP can consume and
save more since GDP represents the total value of
production of goods and services.
 This means, the more goods and services we
produce, the more we are likely to consume and
save. Therefore, as far as saving is concerned, the
most important thing for a country to consider is
its national income.
 One of the ways that a country can properly
utilize resources is through using those that are
locally available.
 All countries produce different goods and
services. When people use locally produced
goods and services they will save resources such
as transport costs. By doing that we are helping
the domestic economy to flourish.
2. Regulating the National Economy on
Realistic International Principles
 In the international economic order over the past two
decades there have been dominating principles that
govern the economy.
 Before that there were opposite principles that were
supported by two blocs: the capitalist west and the socialist east
led by U.S.A. and Soviet Union (Russia) respectively.
 These blocs had different ideologies as to how the
economy should be managed.
 The socialists believed that the command economic
structure was appropriate while the capitalists believed
the market economic structure was better. Over the past
two decades however, the capitalist free market
 The economic principles of the free market economy
are:

• freedom of decision to economic agents like

producers and consumers;
• lower government involvement in the market; and

• letting market forces determine the extent of

transactions and prices.
 Supporting these basic concepts of a market
economy, there are other international principles.
These include:
• global welfare;
• distributive justice;
• comparative advantage; and
• sustainable development.
 Essential Question:
How do economic
systems answer the
questions of what,
how, and for whom to
produce?
 UNIT 10
Active Community Participation
 1. Effective Leadership for
Active
Participation
 Leadership simply means giving direction
and the quality of a good leader comprises
of the personality and style of treatment
which influences the behavior of others.

 There are three important features of

leadership: influence or support, voluntary
 The success of an organization depends on
its leader— his/her attributes, approaches,
and problem solving techniques.
 A good leader creates vision and inspires
others to achieve goals through stretching
their capabilities.
 A leader influences members of the
community so that they perform together
willingly for the achievement of their goal.
In a democracy,
 effective leadership is very important to enhance
good governance, transparency, openness and
accountability which are cornerstones for active
community participation.
 A democratic environment requires a good leader
who inspires and develops followers to achieve the
stated objectives.
 He/she assumes the responsibility of looking after
the well-being of a community. Threats and coercion
are not part of good leadership. It is mutual trust and
confidence which helps the community to attain its
 Some personal qualities that are required from a leader
to promote public participation include being:

 A planner: Somebody who has the ability to set

appropriate courses of action through well-prepared
plans.

• Versatile: Somebody who is adaptable, flexible,

resourceful, multitalented and an all-round
personality. A leader can work in situations totally
different from routine functions. Intelligence,
ambition, assertiveness, politeness and psychological
stimulation are essential attributes of a leader.
 motivator: It is a quality of a leader to inspire others
to be willing, feel enthusiastic about, interested, and
committed to the objective of the task. It is the ability
to give somebody a reason or incentive to do
something. The leader‘s own performance guides and
motivates the members; for example, being prompt
themselves when asking members to come on time.

 Engaging: A good leader has personal qualities

of being charismatic, attractive, appealing,
charming and influential. A leader must have the
quality to influence others morally and socially by
 Realistic: A leader will realize what is achievable or
possible, based on known facts. This is evidenced by
setting realistic goals and being practical. Generally,
active community participation requires effective
leaders, who have personal integrity, self-
confidence, analytical ability, knowledge, creativity,
charisma, flexibility and direction.
 Civic Participation

  Associations or civic societies are

organizations formed by the collection of
voluntary individual members.
 Civic societies are not static; they are dynamic
and ever changing to meet the needs of society,
their members, corporate objectives and
environmental changes.
 Some organizations are established with the
objective of advocating certain societal issues.
Others are formulated to help the individuals in
the group. Therefore, organizations need to
formulate their objectives and structures.
 Once the objectives have been agreed:
• suitable plans or courses of action are
prepared;
• appropriate structures and arrangements are
decided upon; and

• the actions for individuals and groups of

people are identified to achieve those
objectives.
 Active participation of the members in their
civic organization enables the attainment of
individual and collective goals. Usually the
members of associations have the following
characteristics:
• they define themselves as members;
• they share common goals;
• they engage in different activities.

Such participations of citizens are vital for

the construction of democratic system and
 Citizens‘ can also participate in policy making and evaluating
public policies. This participation has many advantages.
 It is very important for a democratic government to know how
the citizens feel and react to various issues. This enables a
government to shape policy that suits society so that its policies
will be more sustainable and productive.
 Consequently, as members of society, citizens will benefit from
the good policies that enhance development of their society.
 Citizens engage in the process of policy making by
directly participating in civic life and by
discussing pressing issues with their neighbors or
with citizens who belong to civic forums in their
communities, like parent-teacher associations,
service organizations, neighborhood associations
or Iddir.

 Citizens also engage in policy making by taking

part in various facets of the formal process of
governance.
Media (electronic and press) are vital in democratic
systems. The power of the media is widely
recognized in the world today.
 It can be used to check the accountability of
government officials and is also one of the major
means used in shaping the perceptions and
impressions of people. For instance, it is often
observed that in times of conflict, media play a
major role in either escalating or de- escalating
the war.
 Media are expected to be instruments by which
  In the process of policy making, media can be
used as a means of communication between the
government and the people i.e., media take
messages from the government to the people and
vise versa. Hence, citizens should be enabled to
use the media freely.
 By freedom of the press it does not mean that
anybody can write what he/she pleases. Writings
or speeches should be based on the truth and
unbiased.
 Press freedom is a means of protecting values,
such as individual rights and a viable
representative government.
 It implies, on the other hand, substantial
obligation to search for the truth, and to be fair
and unbiased. However, the basic idea of this
principle is that the press should be free to
communicate to the people.

 Moreover, freedom of the press implies that the

press should get access to government
information in order to communicate its
activities to the people.
see: The FDRE Constitution, Article 29: Right of Thought,
Opinion and Expression
 Unit 11
 
The Pursuit of Wisdom
 Knowledge
  Knowledge influences the way humans‘ lives and interacts with
nature.
 The developments in science and the transformations in technology
have impacted greatly on social life. This transformation has brought
a change in our conception of distance and time.
 Due to the technological developments, which are manifestations of
knowledge, the world no longer seems such a huge place as had been
thought in the past.
 Through knowledge, society continues to change. You even see a
transformation in yourself as it has the power to effectively alter your
social status.
 Information as a Source of Knowledge

11.2.1 Data---------------------------------
11.2.2 Sources of data-----------------------------------------------
11.2.3 Data analysis----------------------------------------
11. 2 .4Data collection Instruments----------------------
11.2. 5 Sampling technics in data collection-------------------
11.2. 6 Hypothesis
11.2.7 Generalization-------------------------------------
11.2.8 Information------------------------------------

Information helps us to develop our knowledge. One of the methods

through which we can gather information is through research.
 
Developing Reading Habits
 Truth vs Myth