Introduction 4
Introduction 4
Introduction 4
-John W. Creswelll
Qualitative vs. Quantitative
• Basic Criticisms of Quantitative Research
– Preoccupied with control
– Reductionist
– Top down
– Misses big picture
• Basic Criticisms of Qualitative Research
– Subjective
– Biased
– Results not generalizable
– Unable to identify causal relationships
What is Qualitative Research?
• Many researchers are more interested in
the quality and meaning of a particular
activity
• Research studies that investigate the
quality of relationships, activities,
situations, or materials are frequently
referred to as Qualitative Research.
• There is a greater emphasis on holistic
description.
Quantitative vs. Qualitative
General Characteristics of
Qualitative Research
• Five general features of Qualitative Research:
1) The natural setting is a direct source and key
element
2) Collection is in the form of words or pictures
3) Researchers are concerned with how things occur
4) Construction of a picture while data is being
collected vs. a priori hypotheses.
5) Special interest in the participants’ thoughts
Philosophical Assumptions
• Differences between the paradigms of
Qualitative vs. Quantitative are expressed in
how one approaches an investigation.
• Positivism and post-positivism
– What are they?
– How do they view reality?
• Critical theory and Constructivism
– What are they?
– How do they view reality?
Philosophical Assumptions
• Ontology
– What is the nature or reality?
• Epistemology
– What is relationship between the researcher and that which is being
researched?
• Axiology
– What is the role of values?
• Rhetorical
– What is the language of research?
• Methodological
– What is the process of research?
“Passive” “Active”
Researcher Researcher
Steps in Qualitative Research
• All qualitative studies have a distinct starting and
ending point.
• The steps are as follows (in some cases):
– Identification of the phenomenon to be studied
– Identification of the participants in the study (purposive sample
collecting)
– Generation of hypotheses
– Data collection (continual observance)
– Data analysis
– Interpretation/Conclusions
Approaches to Qualitative
Research
• Five traditions (Creswell, 1998) + 1
– Biographical Study
– Phenomenological Study
– Grounded Theory Study
– Ethnography
– Case Study
– Action Research
Biography
• A study of an individual and her or his
experiences
– As told to the researcher
– As found in documents
– As written by the individual
• Biography
– Written by someone other than the individual
• Autobiography
– Written by the individual
Phenomenological Study
• A person’s construction of the meaning of a concept
(phenomenon)
• Attempts to understand participants’ perspectives and
views of social realities
• Attempt to understand what a specific experience is like
by describing it as found in concrete situations as it
appears to people living it.
• The researcher often has personal experience with the
phenomenon
• Example of topics
– “being left out”, “falling asleep”, “being afraid of the dark”
Grounded Theory
• A general research method
– Generate or discover theory
• That is “grounded” in data that is systematically
collected and analyzed.
– Recursive process of sampling and analysis
– Theory is developed during the course of the
study.
Ethnography
• A description and interpretation of a
cultural or social group.
– Examines a group’s
• Patterns of behavior
• Customs
• Ways of Life
– Participant Observation
Case Study
• Develops an in-depth analysis of a single case or
multiple cases.
• Much can be learned from study one individual, one
classroom, one school, or one school district.
– Types
• Intrinsic
– Interested in understanding a specific case
• Instrumental
– Interested in understanding something larger than the case.
» e.g., study of a teacher who uses phonics
• Multiple case study
– Additional cases are added.
» Why?
Action Research
• Conducted by one or more individuals for the
purpose of solving a problem.
• Typically motivated by an immediate problem.
• Types
– Practical Action Research
• Primary purpose is to improve practice.
– Participatory Action Research
• Primary goal is empower individuals and groups to bring
about social change.
Qualitative Sampling
– Qualitative research uses sampling strategies
that produce samples that are predominantly
small and non random.
– Keeps in line with the emphasis on in-depth
description of participants’ perspectives and
context.
– Purposive sampling ensures that the “best”
participants are included.
Purposive Sampling
• Researcher identifies a research topic
– Then selects a sample of individuals who will
provide relevant information.
– When a number of criteria are used the
technique is called criterion purposive
sampling.
Sampling
• Purposive
– High school teachers were asked to select
students who, in their opinion, had the
greatest likelihood of academic failure.
• Purposive Criterion Sampling
– African American males who were age 20 to
25, high school graduates, and married were
the identified and interviewed for this study.
Group Discussion
• Name a general topic in which qualitative
researchers might conduct research.
• Name at least four demographic variables
that might be of interest to a researcher of
this topic.
Sampling (cont.)
• In Quantitative terms purposive samples are
non-probability samples
– Sampling methods that do not have random sampling
at any stage of sample selection
• Convenience sampling
– Includes whoever is available
• Purposive sampling (a.k.a.) judgmental sampling
– Used often for qualitative studies
– In a quantitative framework what problem does this
create in the interpretation of the results?
– How would a qualitative researcher respond to this
critique?
Sampling in Qualitative
Research
• Purposive Sampling Techniques:
– Typical Sample
– Extreme or Deviant Case
• Unusual or exceptional.
– Homogenous sampling
• No diversity. Sample has similar characteristics
– Snowball sampling
• selecting few participants who identify other good participants
– Confirming Sample
• Selected to confirm or disconfirm preliminary findings.
– Maximal Variation
• Sample as diverse as possible.
Sample size
• Qualitative studies are generally smaller.
– Why?
• What criteria is used by some qualitative
researchers to determine when to stop
sampling?
– Explain how it works.
Generalization in Qualitative
Research
• A generalization is usually thought of as a statement or
claim that applies to more than one individual, group, or
situation.
• The value of a generalization is that it allows us to have
expectations about the future.
• A limitation of Qualitative Research is that there is
seldom justification for generalizing the findings of a
particular study.
– Why?
– Do quantitative studies differ?
• Why? Why not?
In Groups
• According to Stanovich
– What problems exist with case studies?
– What is the place of the case study?
– What is the vividness problem?
• Give an example of it.
• What do YOU think the place of the case
study is in educational (or social)
research?