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RESEARCH METHODS
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Chap-1
An Overview of Research Methods
 An Overview of Research Methods
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Learning Objectives:
At the end of this chapter, students are expected to
acquaint themselves with meaning ,nature, type
and scope of a research method.
 Definition of Research
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 Research may be defined as an organized, systematic, data based,

critical, objective, scientific inquiry or investigation into a specific
problem, undertaken with the purpose of finding answers or
solutions to it.
 Research is a process of steps used to collect and analyze information

to increase our understanding of a topic or issue. (Creswell, 2012)

 Scientific Research
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 Scientific research focuses on solving problems

and pursues a step-by-step, logical, organized,
and rigorous method to identify the problems,
gather data, analyze them, and draw valid
conclusions.
 Thus, is not based on hunches, experience,
and intuition but purposive and rigorous.
 Business of Research
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 Business research can be described as a

systematic and organized effort to investigate
a specific problem encountered in the work
setting, that needs a solution

 It comprises a series of steps designed and

executed with the goal of finding answers to
the issue that are of concern to the manager in
the work environment
 Importance of Research
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 Research provides the needed information that

guides planners to make informed decisions to
successfully deal with the problems.
 The information provided could be the result of a
careful analysis of data gathered firsthand or of the
data that are already available with an organization.
 Research produces knowledge which could be used
for the solution of problems as well as for the
generation of universal theories, principles and laws.
 Value of Research to the Student
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 knowledge about research methods/methodology

 allows people to understand research that is relevant to their
professions.
 makes one a more intelligent and effective “research consumer” in
everyday life.
 Involves the development of critical thinking.
 Scientists are always asking questions, considering alternative explanations,
insisting on hard evidence, refining their methods, and critiquing their own
and others’ conclusions.
 helps one become an authority, not only on research methodology but
also on particular topics
 •Provides information needed to critically read a research article.
 • Necessary for admission into most graduate programs
 Characteristics of Scientific Method

I) Empirical
 Empiricism refers to the practice of relying on observation to
draw conclusions about the world
 Is based on evidence
 Scientific method is concerned with the realities that are
observable through “sensory experiences.”
 It generates knowledge which is verifiable by experience or
systematic observation (no a priori conceptions)
 Some of the realities that could be directly observed:
 the number of students present in the class and
 how many of them are male and how many are female.
 Characteristics of Scientific Method

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 Some realities can be indirectly observed

 Attitudes, values, motivations, aspirations,
commitments etc
 Other realities that can not be put to “sensory
experience” directly or indirectly includes :
 existence of heaven,
 the Judgment Day,
 life after death etc… does not fall within
the domain of scientific method.
 Characteristics of Scientific Method

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II)Verifiable
 Observations made through scientific method are to be
verified again by using the senses to confirm or refute the
previous findings.
 Such confirmations may have to be made by the same
researcher or others.
 We will place more faith and credence in those findings
and conclusions if similar findings emerge on the basis of
data collected by other researchers using the same methods
 increases the likelihood that errors and incorrect
conclusions will be detected and corrected
 Characteristics of Scientific Method

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III) Cumulative
 No single research study stands alone

 Prior to the start of any study the researchers try to scan

through the literature and see that their study is not a
repetition in ignorance.
 Instead of reinventing the wheel the researchers take stock of
the existing body of knowledge and try to build on it.
 The results are to be organized and systematized.

 A linkage between the present and the previous body of

knowledge has to be established, and that is how the
knowledge accumulates.
 Characteristics of Scientific Method

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I V ) Deterministic
 Science is based on the assumption that all events have
antecedent causes that are subject to identification and logical
understanding.
 For the scientist, nothing “just happens” – it happens for a
reason.
 The scientific researchers try to explain the emerging phenomenon
by identifying its causes.
 Of the identified causes which ones can be the most important?
 For example, from the 2014 EC BA/BSc graduates of public
Universities 60 percent of the students did not get employment.
 What could be the determinants of this phenomenon?
 Characteristics of Scientific Method
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V) Objectivity (Ethical and Ideological Neutrality)

 Is the ability to see and accept facts as they are, not as

one might wish them to be

 The conclusions drawn through data analysis should be
objective;
 they should be based on the facts of the findings derived from
actual data, not on our own subjective or emotional values.
 scientific method should follow the principle of
objectivity, uphold neutrality, and present the results
in an unbiased manner.
 Characteristics of Scientific Method

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VI) Statistical Generalization (Generalizability)

 Generalizability refers to the scope of applicability of the
research findings in one organizational setting to other settings.
 the wider the range of applicability of the solutions, the more
useful the research is to users and the greater its value.
 For wider generalizability, the research sampling design
has to be logically developed and other details in the data-
collection methods need to be meticulously followed.
 There’s a need to balance cost of research vs elaborate
design
 Characteristics of Scientific Method

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VII) Rationalism
 Science is fundamentally a rational activity, and the scientific
explanation must make sense.
 Is the view that rational intuitions are the most important way of
acquiring knowledge
 Seeks universal truth through reasoning and logic

 They play an important role in the formation of theories and

hypothesis
 Religion may rest on revelations, custom, or traditions, but
science must rest on logical reason.
 There are two distinct logical systems important to the scientific
quest, referred to as deductive logic and inductive logic.
 Characteristics of Scientific Method

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 Deductive reasoning: from the general to the particular, applying a

theory to a particular case.
 is the process by which we arrive at a reasoned conclusion by logical
generalization of a known fact.
 Arguments based on laws, rules and accepted principles are generally
used
 The classical illustration of deductive logic is the familiar syllogism:
“All men are mortal; Mekonon is a man; therefore Mekonon is mortal.”
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 Characteristics of Scientific Method
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 Inductive reasoning: from particular instances to

general principles, from facts to theories
 is a process where we observe certain phenomena

and on this basis arrive at conclusions

 Observations are tend to be used for inductive

reasoning
 We logically establish a general proposition based

on observed facts
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 Building blocks of Science
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 Power Bases of Scientific Knowledge:
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The two power bases of scientific knowledge includes the following:

1) Empiricism - Sensory experiences or observation,
and
 Emphasizes on observation to understand our past and present and
predict the future
 No universal truth-understanding the fallibility of our senses

2) Rationalism:- The logical explanations for regularity

and then consequential argumentation for making
generalizations (theory).
 We emphasize on reasoning and logic rather than experience
 The drawback- Propositions are not empirically tested
 Eg males have better math skills than females
 Classification of Research
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 For classification of research we shall look from four

dimensions:

1. The purpose of doing research;

2. The intended uses of research;
3. the time dimension in research …How it treats time i.e.; and
4. The research (data collection) techniques used in it.

 The four dimensions reinforce each other; that is, a purpose tends to
go with certain techniques and particular uses.
 Classification of Research
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1) Purpose of Doing Research

 The purposes of research may be organized into three
groups:
i. Explore a new topic,
ii. Describe a social phenomenon, or
iii. Explain why something occurs.
 Studies may have multiple purposes (e.g. both to explore
and to describe) but one purpose usually dominates.
 Classification of Research
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i) Exploratory /Formative Research

 You may be exploring a new topic or issue in order to learn

about it.
 If the issue was new or researchers has written little on it, you

began investigating from the ground.

 This is called exploratory research.
 The researcher’s goal is to formulate more precise questions
that future research can answer.
 Exploratory research may be the first stage in a sequence of
studies.
 A researcher may need to know enough to design and execute a
second, more systematic and extensive study.
 Classification of Research
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Goals of Exploratory Research:

1. Become familiar with the basic facts, setting, and
concerns;
2. Develop well-grounded picture of the situation;
3. Develop tentative theories; generate new ideas,
conjectures, or hypotheses;
4. Determine the feasibility of conducting the study;
5. Formulate questions and refine issues for more
systematic inquiry; and
6. Develop techniques and a sense of direction for future
research.
 Classification of Research
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For exploratory research, the researcher may use different

sources for getting information like:

1. Experience surveys,

2. Secondary data analysis/Review of literature,

3. Case studies, and

4. Pilot studies (could also involve focus groups).

 Classification of Research
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ii) Descriptive Research

 Presents a picture of the specific details of a situation, social

setting, or relationship.
 It’s major purpose is to describe characteristics of a variable

of interest in a situation or population/phenomenon.

 Also may describe patterns of behavior, thought, or emotion.

 It seeks to determine the answers to who, what, when, where,

and how questions.

 Eg. Labor force Surveys, Population Census, Educational Census,
 Eg. Study on consumers’ preferences and buying practices
 Classification of Research
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Goals of Descriptive Research

1. Describe the situation in terms of its characteristics i.e. provide

an accurate profile of a group;
2. Gives a verbal or numerical picture (%, mean, SD etc…) of the
situation;
3. Presents background information;
4. Creates a set of categories or classify the information;
5. Clarifies sequence, set of stages; and
6. Focuses on ‘who,’ ‘what,’ ‘when,’ ‘where,’ and ‘how’ but not
why?
 Classification of Research
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 Descriptive researchers use most data

gathering techniques :

Surveys,
Fieldresearch, and
Content analysis
 Classification of Research
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iii) Explanatory Research

 The desire to know “why,” or to explain, is the

purpose of Explanatory Research.

 It builds on exploratory and descriptive research and

goes on to identify the reasons for something that

occurs.
 Explanatory Research looks for causes and reasons.

 For Example,
 A descriptive research may discover that 40 percent of graduates
remain unemployed, whereas the explanatory researcher is more
interested in learning why that’s the case.
 Classification of Research
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Goals of Explanatory Research

1. Explains things not just reporting. Why?
2. Determines which of several explanations is best.
3. Determines the accuracy of the theory; tests a theory’s
predictions or principle.
4. Advances knowledge about underlying process.
5. Builds and elaborates a theory; elaborates and enriches a
theory’s explanations, predictions or principle.
6. Extends a theory or principle to new areas, new issues, new
topics.
7. Provides evidence to support or refute an explanation or
prediction.
 Classification of Research
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2) Uses Of Research
 Research could be used to advance general knowledge,
or to solve specific problems.
 Those who seek an understanding of the fundamental
nature of social reality are engaged in basic research
 Academic research or pure research or fundamental
research.
 Applied researchers, primarily want to apply and
tailor knowledge to address a specific practical
issue/problem.
 answer a policy question or solve a pressing social
and economic problem
 Classification of Research
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i) Basic Research
 Advances fundamental knowledge about the human world.
 It focuses on refuting or supporting theories that explain how this
world operates, what makes things happen, why social relations are a
certain way, and why society changes.
 Is the source of most new scientific ideas and ways of thinking about
the world.
 It can be exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory; however, explanatory
research is the most common.
 It generates new ideas, principles and theories, which may not be
immediately utilized; though are the foundations of modern progress
and development in different fields.
 Today’s computers could not exist without the pure research in mathematics
conducted over a century ago, for which there was no known practical
application at that time.
 Classification of Research
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ii) Applied Research

 Applied researchers try to solve specific policy problems
or help practitioners accomplish tasks.
 Theory is less central to them than seeking a solution on
a specific problem for a limited setting.
 Applied research is often a descriptive research, and its
main strength is its immediate practical use.
 Applied research is conducted when decision must be
made about a specific real-life problem.
 Classification of Research
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iii) Basic and Applied Research Compared

 The procedures and techniques utilized by basic and
applied researchers do not differ substantially.
 Both employ the scientific method to answer the
questions at hand.
 The scientific community is the primary consumer

of basic research.
 Classification of Research
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 The consumers of applied research findings are

practitioners such as teachers, counselors, and
caseworkers, or decision makers such as
managers, committees, and officials.
 Often, someone other than the researcher who
conducted the study uses the results of applied research.
 This means that applied researchers have an
obligation to translate findings from scientific
technical language into the language of decision
makers or practitioners.
 Classification of Research
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 Applied and basic researchers adopt different

orientations toward research methodology.
 Basic researchers emphasize high standards and try to
conduct near-perfect research.
 Applied researchers make more trade-offs.
 They may compromise scientific rigor to get quick, usable
results.
 Compromise is no excuse for sloppy research, however.
 Applied researchers squeeze research into the constraints of
an applied setting and balance rigor against practical needs.
 Such balancing requires an in-depth knowledge of research
and an awareness of the consequences of compromising
standards.
 Classification of Research
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iv)Types of Applied Research

 Practitioners use several types of applied research.
 Some of the major ones are:
i) Action research:
 Isan applied research that treats knowledge as a form of
power and abolishes the line between research and social
action.
 Those who are being studied participate in the research
process; research incorporates ordinary or popular
knowledge; research focuses on power with a goal of
empowerment; research seeks to raise consciousness or
increase awareness
 Classification of Research
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 Actionresearchers assume that knowledge

develops from experience, particularly the
experience of social-political action.

 Theyalso assume that ordinary people can

become aware of conditions and learn to
take actions that can bring about
improvement.
 Classification of Research
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ii) Impact Assessment Research

 Its purpose is to estimate the likely consequences of a
planned change.
 Such an assessment is used for planning and making
choices among alternative policies –
 to make an impact assessment of Ethiopian
Renaissance Dam on the environment;
 to determine changes in city plan of Addis Ababa
as a result of the major new highways and railways
built.
 Classification of Research
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iii) Evaluation Research

 Itaddresses the question, “Did it work?”
 The process of establishing value judgment based on
evidence about the achievement of the goals of a
program.
 Evaluation research measures the effectiveness of a program,
policy, or way of doing something. “Did the program work?”
 “Did it achieve its objectives?”
 Evaluation researchers use several research
techniques (survey, field research).
 Classification of Research
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 Two types of evaluation research are formative and

summative.
 Formative evaluation is built-in monitoring or
continuous feedback on a program used for
program management.

 Summative evaluation looks at final program

outcomes.

Both are usually necessary .
 Classification of Research
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3) Time Dimension In Research

 Another dimension of research is the treatment
of time.
Some studies give us a snapshot of a single,
fixed time point and allow us to analyze it in
detail.
Others provide a moving picture that lets us
follow events, people, or sale of products over a
period of time.
 Classification of Research
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i) Cross-Sectional Research.
 here researchers observe at one point in time
 It is usually the simplest and least costly
alternative.
 Its disadvantage is that it cannot capture the
change processes.
 Cross-sectional research can be exploratory,
descriptive, or explanatory, but it is most
consistent with a descriptive approach to research.
 Classification of Research
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ii) Longitudinal Research

 Here researchers examine features of people
or other units at more than one time.
 It is usually more complex and costly than
cross-sectional research
 but it is also more powerful, especially when
researchers seek answers to questions about
change.
 Classification of Research
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There are three types of longitudinal research:

1. Time series research is longitudinal study in which the same
type of information is collected on a group of people or other
units across multiple time periods.
2. The panel study is a powerful type of longitudinal research. In
panel study, the researcher observes exactly the same people,
group, or organization across time periods. It is a difficult to
carry out such study. Tracking people over time is often
difficult because some people die or cannot be located.
3. A cohort analysis is similar to the panel study, but rather than
observing the exact same people, a category of people who
share a similar life experience in a specified time period is
studied
 Classification of Research
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4) Research (Data Collection) Techniques Used

 Every researcher collects data using one or more

techniques.
 The techniques may be grouped into two categories:

i) Quantitative
ii) Qualitative
 Classification of Research
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i) Quantitative
 Quantitative, collecting data in the form
of numbers.
 The main quantitative techniques are:
 Experiments
 Surveys
 Using Existing Statistics
 Classification of Research
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ii) Qualitative
 Qualitative, collecting data in the form of words or
pictures.
 The major qualitative techniques of research are:
 Field Research

 Case Study

 Focus Group Discussion

 Research Paradigms

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 The term paradigm refers to the progress of scientific

practice based on
 people's philosophies and assumptions about the world
and
 the nature of knowledge; in this context, it is about how
research should be conducted.
 “the basic belief system or world view that guides the
investigation, not only in choices of method but in
ontologically and epistemologically fundamental
ways” (Guba and Lincoln, 1994:105)
52
 Research Paradigms
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 Research Philosophy: relates to the development of

knowledge and the nature of that knowledge
 your particular view of the relationship
between knowledge and the process by which
it is developed influences the philosophy you
adopt
 Eg Studying a manufacturing process: a researcher
concerned with facts Vs one concerned with feelings
and attitudes of workers
 Research Paradigms
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 Three important ways of thinking about research philosophy:

1) Epistemology: concerns what constitutes acceptable
knowledge in a field of study
 how do we know what we know?
 Positivist vs interpretivist perspective
 Positivist/Postpositivists hold a deterministic philosophy
in which causes (probably) determine effects or outcomes.
 It is also reductionistic:
 the intent is to reduce the ideas into a small, discrete set to test,
such as the variables that comprise hypotheses and research
questions.
 Research Paradigms
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 Seek the facts/causes of social phenomena

 The knowledge that develops is based on careful observation
and measurement of the objective reality that exists “out there”
in the world.
 developing numeric measures of observations and studying the
behavior of individuals becomes paramount
 the researcher is independent of and neither affects nor is affected
by the subject of the research
 positivist researcher will be likely to use a highly structured
methodology in order to facilitate replication
 Law-like generalizations as end products
 Research Paradigms
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 Interpretivist/Constructivist: assumes that we cannot separate

ourselves from what we know.
 who we are and how we understand the world is a central part of
how we understand ourselves, others and the world.
 Intellectual traditions: Phenomenology and symbolic
interactionism
 Phenomenology: refers to the way in which we as humans make
sense of the world around us (lived experience)
 Symbolic interactionism: we are in a continual process of
interpreting the social world around us
 The challenge is to enter the social world of our research subjects
and understand their world from their point of view
 Research Paradigms
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 2) Ontology is concerned with the nature of reality

 what do we believe about the nature of reality?
 Whether we believe there is one verifiable reality or whether
there exist multiple, socially constructed realities
 Objectivism: social entities exist in reality external to social
actors concerned with their existence
 eg. Organization culture as something the org “has”
 Subjectivism: holds that social phenomena are created from
the perceptions and consequent actions of the social actors
(researchers)
 Eg organization culture as “is” as a result of continuous social
enactment
 Research Paradigms
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 This is a continual process in that through the

process of social interaction these social
phenomena are in a constant state of revision
 Pragmatism: argues as the most important
determinant of the research philosophy adopted is
the research question
 choosing between one position and the other is
somewhat unrealistic in practice
 it is possible to work with both philosophies
 Research Paradigms
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 3) Axiology: is a branch of philosophy that studies

judgments about value (ethics and value systems)
 what do we believe is true?
 at all stages in the research process you will be
demonstrating your values eg when choosing
research topic, choice of philosophical
approach etc…
 Is also an interpretivist stance
 Research Paradigms
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 Your choice of methodology, data collection strategy,

writing style etc… may vary depending on your chosen
research philosophy
 No one paradigmatic/theoretical framework is
‘correct’
 it is your choice to determine:
 your own paradigmatic view and
 how that informs your research design to best
answer the question under study
 Research Paradigms
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Methodology Vs. Methods

 Methodology refers to the overall approach to
the research process,
 from the theoretical underpinning to the collection
and analysis of the data.
 ‘Like theories, methodologies cannot be true or
false, but can only be more or less useful’
(Silverman, 1994, p. 2).
 Methods refer only to the various
means/technique by which data can be
collected and/or analyzed.
 Research Paradigms
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Methodology should address the following

main issues:
 Why data are collected
 What data are collected
 From where the data were collected
 When the data were collected
 How the data were you collected
 How the data will be analyzed.
 The Research Process
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 The Research Process
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The main steps in the research process includes the

following::
i) Broad Problem Area
The process begins with a researcher selecting a topic – a general
area of study or issue such as:
 Women in leadership
 Employment Conditions in FDI Firms
 Marketing, Or
 Professional associations
 Monitoring and evaluation
 The Research Process

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Such issues might pertain to:

a) Problem currently existing in an organizational setting
that need to be solved (sexual harassment),
b) Areas that a manager believes need to be improved in the
organization (improving the existing policies),
c) A conceptual or theoretical issue that needs to tightened up
for basic researcher or to understand certain phenomenon
(conceptual definition of harassment), and
d) Some research questions that a basic researcher wants to
answer empirically (impact of harassment on the
performance of the workers).
a) .
 The Research Process
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ii) Preliminary Data Collection

 This step may be considered as part of the exploratory
research.
 An exploration typically begins with a search for
published data and studies.
 provide secondary data which becomes part of the background
information (about the organization, groups of people, context
of the issue).
 Some secondary sources of data are statistical bulletins,
government publications, information published or
unpublished, case studies, online data, web sites, and the
Internet.
 The Research Process

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iii) Problem Definition

 After preliminary exploration the researcher then
should narrow down the issue and define it clearly.
 A problem is any situation where a gap exists between the
actual and the desired ideal states
 Translate the broad issue into a research question.
 As part of the applied research convert the management
dilemma into a management question, and then on to
research question that fits the need to resolve the dilemma.
 The symptoms of a problem might help tracing the
real problem.
 The Research Process

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…………………Problem Definition…………..ued
 To what extent has the new advertising campaign been successful in
creating the high quality, consumer-centered corporate image that it
was intended to produce?
 Has the new organizational reform program brought the intended
objective?
 Will the day care centers affect the productivity of female workers?

 Why the divorce rate is on the increase in Addis Ababa?

 Why the employee turnover is becoming high in the civil service

sector?
 What could be the impact of tax reform on attracting foreign direct
investment?
 The Research Process

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iv)Theoretical Framework
 Consultations with the informants and professionals, and the review of
literature helps in the identification of different factors that are
considered to be relevant to the topic.
 The researcher has to make logical relationship among several factors
identified earlier.
 This will help in the delineation of the theoretical framework.
 The theoretical framework discusses the interrelationships among the
variables that are deemed to be integral to the dynamics of the situation
being investigated.
 Developing such a conceptual framework helps to postulate or
hypothesize and test certain relationships.
 The Research Process
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v) Generation of Hypotheses

 Once we have identified the important variables relevant to an

issue and established the logical reasoning in the theoretical
framework, we are in a position to test whether the
relationships that have been theorized do in fact hold true.

 By testing these relationships scientifically, we are in a

position to obtain reliable information to determine the
relationship among the variables.
 The Research Process
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vi) Research design

 Research design is a master plan specifying the methods

and procedures for collecting and analyzing the needed
information.
 It is a framework or the blueprint that plans the action for
research project.
 The objectives of the study determined during the early
stages of the research are included in the design to ensure
that the information collected is appropriate for solving
the problem.
 The Research Process
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 The researcher must specify the sources of information, and the

research method or technique (survey or experiment, for example)
to be followed in the study.

 Broadly there are six basic research methods for descriptive and causal research:
 Surveys,
 Experiments,
 Observation,
 Communication analysis (content analysis),
 Case study,
 focus group discussion.
 Use of secondary data may be another method where the data may
have been collected by using any of the six basic methods listed
earlier
 The Research Process
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Vii) Data Collection, Data Processing, and Analysis

 Data collection is determined by the research technique selected
for the project
 Can be collected in a variety of ways, field/lab and from
different sources
 It could include:
 Interviews – face to face interviews, telephone interviews,
computer-assisted interviews etc…
 Questionnaires: person-administered, sent through mail, or
electronically administered;
 Observation: participant or non-participant.
 Once the fieldwork has been completed, the data must be
converted into a format that will answer the research questions
and or help testing the hypotheses.
 The Research Process
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Viii) Hypotheses Testing/Answering the Research Questions

 The analysis and interpretation of the data shall be the means

to testing the formulated hypotheses as well as finding answers
to the research questions.
 In case of applied research, the research should be
helpful in finding solutions to the problems of the
organization or society.
 Making recommendations may also be part of this
process.
 The Research Process
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ix) Report Writing

 The research report should communicate the
research findings effectively.
 All too often the report is a complicated
statement of the study’s technical aspects and
sophisticated research methods.
 If the study has been conducted for a business
management, often the management is not interested in
detailed reporting of the research design and statistical
findings but wants only the summary of the findings.
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76

 Clearly Defined Purpose – scope, limitations,

and precise meaning of the terms used.
 Detailed Research Procedure – should be
described in sufficient detail to enable another
researcher to repeat the research, otherwise it
will not be possible to estimate the validity and
reliability of the data.
 Research Design – should be planned to yield
objective results
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77

 Ethical Standards – researchers should safeguard

against physical or psychological harm, exploitation,
invasion of privacy, and guard the welfare of the
participants and organization, their clients, their
colleagues, and themselves.
 Limitations – researchers should report frankly any
flaws in procedural design and estimate their effect on
the findings.
 Adequate Analysis – appropriate statistical methods
should be applied.
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78

 Unambiguous Findings – clear and precise,

easily understood by the decision maker.

 Conclusions - limited to those for which

the data provide adequate basis.