12 chapter

THERMODYNAMICS
BY:- Ankit Singh
 INDE
X System
• Introduction to Thermodynamics
• Type of Thermodynamics
• System, Surrounding and Universe
• Explanation of thermodynamics
• Zeroth law of thermodynamics
• Heat and Inertial energy
• Work
• State variables
• Extensive and Intensive properties
• Heat capacity
• Specify heat capacity
• Process
• Isothermal process
• Work done in isothermal process
• Adiabatic process
• Work done in adiabatic process
• Isobaric process and work done
• Isochoric process and work done
• First law of Thermodynamic
• Limitation of first law of Thermodynamic
• Second law of Thermodynamic
• Advantages of Thermodynamic study
• Reversible processes
• Irreversible processes
• Carnot engine
 INTRODUCTION TO
THERMODYNAMIC

The branch of physic which deals with transformation of heat energy

into form of energy is called Thermodynamic

We study the macroscopic quantities of the system such as volume ,

pressure , temperature , internal energy ,entropy , enthalpy.

One of the most important concept of thermodynamic is the

“Temperature”.
 SYSTEM,SURROUNDIN
GAND UNIVERSE

System:- The part of universe which is under investigation is know as

system
Surrounding:- The part of universe which is not under investigation
is know as surrounding
Universe:- System + Surrounding

Thermodynamic Equilibrium :-

When macroscopic variation ( like pressure , volume , temperature ,

composition , mass etc.) that characterise the system do not change
with time .
 THERMODYNAMIC
SYSTEM

There are three type of Thermodynamic system :-

 Open system

 Closed system

 Isolated system
 EXPLANATION OF
SYSTEM

Open system :-
It is the Thermodynamics system in which matter and energy of system can
be evolved from system or share with surrounding .

Energy out
Mass out

system
System boundary
Mass in

Energy in
Closed system:-
It is the system in which only energy can be evolve from system not
matter of system .

Energy out

No mass transfer

System System boundry

Energy in
Isolated system:-

It is the Thermodynamic system in which either matter nor energy of

system evolve from the system.

No mass
transfer

System No energy
transfer
System boundary
 ZEROTH LAW OF
THERMODYNAMIC
According to zeroth law , when the Thermodynamic system A and B are
separately in thermal equilibrium with a third Thermodynamic system C ,
then the system A and B are in thermal equilibrium with each other also .

Equilibrium
Equilibrium

Equilibrium
 HEAT AND
INTERNAL ENERGY
 HEAT:- It is energy that flows from higher temperature to lower temperature .

 Internal energy:- Internal energy of system is the total energy possessed by the
system due to molecular motion and molecular configuration . It mean , due to
random motion of atom and molecules of system.

 It is represented by .

 Heat and Internal energy both depends upon temperature and volume .
 WORK

 The energy transferred by the system to another that is accounted for

changes in the external generalized mechanical constraints on the
system is known as work .

 When work done by the system it means negative work (- work)

 When work on the system it mean positive work (+ work)


 DIAGRAM
EXPLANATION
 STATE VARIABLE
 State variable of a system are the parameters with describe
equilibrium state of the system .

 For example : pressure , volume , temperature , mass and

composition .

 The various state variable of a system are not necessarily independent

.

 The connecting between the state variable is called

 the equation of state .
 EXTENSIVE AND
INTENSIVE PROPERTY
Extensive property:- This is the property of a system which is totally
depend upon the amount of a matter of a system .

For example = mass , volume , internal energy etc.

Intensive property :- This is the property of a system which is not

depend upon size of a system .

For example = pressure (P) , density (p) , force (F) etc.

Note :- Extensive/ Extensive = Intensive

 HEAT CAPACITY

If a quantity of heat ‘Q’ produce a change in temperature ‘dT’ in a

body, it’s heat capacity is defined as ratio of heat and change in
temperature
 𝑄=𝐶 Δ𝑇
.
The S.I unit of heat capacity is J/K .
 SPECIFIC HEAT
The quantity of heat ‘Q’ required to produce a change in temperature
‘dT’ is also proportional mass ‘m’ of the sample .

 = Heat capacity / mass

 Specific heat capacity of
water

  Specific Heat Capacity is the heat required to raise temperature of the unit mass of a

given substance by a given amount. Units of specific heat are calories or joules per
gram per Celsius degree . 
 Specific Heat Capacity of Water at normal temperature and pressure is roughly
4.2 J/goC. This means that 1 gram of water requires 4.2 joules of energy to raise 1
degree Celsius. This ‘c’ value is fairly high.
Specific Heat of Water, c = 4.186J/goC
Q = cmΔT
c = Q/(mΔT)

 The formula for Specific Heat Capacity = Energy Required(Q) / mass(m)×ΔT

 Thermodynamic state variable

 All those parameters that determine thermodynamic state of the system . i.e.
P,V,T,m,p,U

 Thermodynamic state variable are of two type :-

Intensive state variable Extensive state variable

 Independent of size of the  Depends of size of the system.

system.  Change with size of the system.
 Do not change with size of the  Ex:- volume, mass, Internal
system . energy of the system.
 Ex:- Pressure,temperature,
density.
 PROCESS

 Defined by change in a system, a Thermodynamic process is a

passage of a Thermodynamic system from an initial to a final state
of a Thermodynamic equilibrium .

 A Thermodynamic process is said to be take place when some

change occurs in the state of thermodynamic system , i.e, the
Thermodynamic parameters of the change with time’
 ISOTHERMAL PROCESS
Isothermal process in which occurs at a constant temperature . ( )

A change in pressure and volume of gas without any change in it’s

temperature is called Isothermal process.

 Constant 3
)

2.5 Isothermal
Specific heat becomes 2
T = constt.

infinite . 1.5

0.5 )
 0
0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2
 WORK DONE IN
ISOTHERMAL EXPANSION

Consider one gram mole of an ideal gas's enclosed in a cylinder with

perfectly conducting walls and fitted with perfection frictionless and
conducting piston .
dw = F*dw = P*A*dx
dw= P.dv
From ideal gases equation for one mole
Pv =nRT
N=1
Pv= RT 𝑃 1 , 𝑉 ,1 𝑇 ⅆ𝑥
 P= RT/v

 W=

W= 2.3026RT log10

 This is the equation of work

done in isothermal
expansion .
 ADIABATIC PROCESS

Adiabatic process is the in which change in heat of a system is

zero .

 System is thermally insulated from surrounding .

 Constant

 Internal energy(U) changes. i.e.

 WORK DONE IN
ADIABATIC PROCESS
Consider one gram of mole of an ideal gas enclosed in a cylinder
with perfectly non conduction walls and fitted with a perfectly
frictionless non conduction piston

 F = P*A


dW= F*dx
dW= (P*A).dx
dW= P.dv ……………(1)
Total work done by gas is adiabatic expansion from

The equation of adiabatic change is

 = constant ‘k’ ……………(2)
From equation (2)

Put in equation (1)

]

 This is the equation of work done in adiabatic process

 ISOBARIC PROCESS
AND WORK DONE

Isobaric process:- This process occur at constant pressure but

volume and temperature change with time system. ()

 Work done in isobaric process:- In an isobaric process, P is

fixed :-
 ISOCHORIC PROCESS AND
WORK DONE

 Isochoric process :- this is the process in which occurs at constant

volume but temperature and pressure of system with time. ()

 Work done is Isochoric process = V is constant , no work is done on

or by the gas .

 W=0
 CYCLIC PROCESS

 It consist of series change which return the system back to it’s

initial state .

𝑃1𝑉 1𝑇 1 𝑃2𝑉 2 𝑇2

𝑃4 𝑉 4 𝑇 4 𝑃3𝑉 3 𝑇 3
 REVERSIBLE PROCESSES
A Thermodynamic process ( state I state f ) is said to be reversible if
the process can be to such that both the system and the surrounding
return to their original states , with no other change anywhere else in the
universe .

 EX :- Extension of springs , Electrolysis(no resistance) , friction less

motion of solid , slow isothermal compression.

𝑃1𝑉 1𝑇 1 𝑃2𝑉 2 𝑇2
 IRREVERSIBAL PROCESSES

An irreversible process can be defined as a process in which the system

and the surrounding do not return to their original condition once the
process is initiated .

EX :- Relative motion with friction , Throttling , Heat transfer ,

Diffusion , Electricity flow through a resistance .

𝑃1𝑉 1𝑇 1 𝑃2𝑉 2 𝑇2
Factors due to which the irreversibility of a process occurs, namely:-
I. The friction that converts the energy of the fuel to heat energy .
II. The unrestrained expansion of the fluid prevents from regaining the
original form of the fuel heat transfer through a final temperature , the
reverse of which is not possible as the forward process , in this case, is
spontaneous.
III. Maximum of two different substance that cannot be separated as the
intermixing process is again spontaneous in nature , the reverse of
which is not feasible .
 FIRST LAW OF
THERMODYNAMIC
This law is simply the general law of conservation of energy as
applied to heat energy .

 According to first law of thermodynamic , whenever heat is added to a

system , it transforms to an equal in some other forms.

 when we supply some heat to a system , it may be do one or both :

1. Increases internal energy .
2. Do the external energy .
 Heat added = Increase in internal energy +external energy

dQ= Small amount of heat supplied to the system

dU= Small change in inertial energy.

dw= Small amount of work done.

According to first law of thermodynamic,

 dQ= dU + dw
 DIAGRAM
EXPLANATION
 LIMATION OF FIRST LAW
OF THERMODYNAMIC
 It does no tell us about which direction heat flows .

 It does not tell about the entropy of a system.

 It not give the idea about the extent of change .

 It not gives the idea about the source of heat.

 It give the idea about final temperature of two bodies which they are
in direction contact .
 SECOND LAW OF
THERMODYNAMIC

 Second law of thermodynamic state that it is impossible to self

acting machine unaided by an external agency to convey heat
from the body
at lower temperature to another at higher
temperature .

 This law made by Clausius .

Kelvin-Planck statement :- No process is possible whose sole
result is the absorption of heat from a reservoir and the complete
conversion of the heat into work .

Clausius statement :- No process is possible whose sole result is

the temperature of heat from a colder object to a hotter object . It can
be proved that the two statement above are completely equivalent .
 DIAGRAM
EXPLANATION
 ADVANTAGES OF
THERMODYNAMIC STURDY

 It help in the sturdy of internals motion of the many body system .

 It give easy path to understand the relation between heat , work and
energy .
 It give path to understand the macroscopic property of a matter for
instance pressure, volume , temperature etc.
 It gives the idea , how to transform the heat energy into another form of
energy in a easy way and in low investment .
 CARNOT ENGINE

The Carnot engine is a theoretical thermodynamic cycle proposed

by Leonard Carnot. It estimates the maximum possible efficiency
that a heat engine during the conversion process of heat into
work and, conversely, working between two reservoirs can
possess.
Carnot Theorem:-
Any system working between T1 (hot reservoir) and T2 (cold reservoir) can never have
more efficiency than the Carnot engine operating between the same reservoirs.
Also, the efficiency of this type of engine is independent of the nature of the working
substance and is only dependent on the temperature of the hot and cold reservoirs.
Carnot Cycle

A Carnot cycle is defined as an ideal reversible closed

thermodynamic cycle. Four successive operations are involved:
isothermal expansion, adiabatic expansion, isothermal
compression, and adiabatic compression. During these operations,
the expansion and compression of the substance can be done up
to the desired point and back to the initial state.
DIAGRAM EXPLANATION
Following are the four processes of the Carnot cycle:
• In (a), the process is reversible isothermal gas expansion. In this process, the
amount of heat absorbed by the ideal gas is qin from the heat source at a
temperature of Th. The gas expands and does work on the surroundings.
• In (b), the process is reversible adiabatic gas expansion. Here, the system is
thermally insulated, and the gas continues to expand and work is done on the
surroundings. Now the temperature is lower, Tl.
• In (c), the process is a reversible isothermal gas compression process. Here,
the heat loss qout occurs when the surroundings do the work at temperature
Tl .
• In (d), the process is reversible adiabatic gas compression. Again the system
is thermally insulated. The temperature again rises back to Th as the
surrounding continue to do their work on the gas.
 STEPS OF CARNOT CYCLE

Step 1:
Isothermal expansion: The gas is taken from P1, V1, T1 to P2, V2, T2. Heat Q1 is absorbed from the
reservoir at temperature T1. Since the expansion is isothermal, the total change in internal energy is
zero, and the heat absorbed by the gas is equal to the work done by the gas on the environment,
which is given :

Step 2:
Adiabatic expansion: The gas expands adiabatically from P2, V2, T1 to P3, V3, T2.
Here, work done by the gas is given by:

Step 3:
Isothermal compression: The gas is compressed isothermally from the state (P3, V3, T2) to (P4, V4,
T2).
Here, the work done on the gas by the environment is given by:
Step 4:
Adiabatic compression: The gas is compressed adiabatically from the state (P4, V4, T2) to (P1,
V1, T1).
Here, the work done on the gas by the environment is given by:
W4→1=μRγ−1(T1−T2)
Hence, the total work done by the gas in one complete cycle is

In efficiency of the Carnot engine is

=
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