CHAPTER TWO

 KINEMATICS AND DYNAMICS OF

PARTICLES
 Mechanics is the study of the physics of motions
and how it relates to the physical factors that affect
them, like force, mass, momentum and energy.
 Mechanics may be divided into two branches:
 kinematics describes the possible motions of a
body or system of bodies without considering the
cause and
 Dynamics, which deals with the motion of objects
with its cause of force;
 Kinematics in One and Two Dimensions
 Kinematics is the study of the motion of objects
with out considering the cause of the motion.
 Kinematics is concerned on analyzing
kinematical quantities used to describe motion
such as velocity, acceleration, displacement, time,
and trajectory.
 Objects are in motion all around us. Planets
moving around the sun, car moving along a road,
blood flowing through veins, etc. are some
examples of motion.
Displacement, velocity & Acceleration in 1D and
2D Definition of kinematical quantities
 Position: - The location of an object with respect
to a chosen reference point.
 Reference Frame:- is a certain point or place
about which motion of a body can be explained.
 Displacement:- The shortest path length covered
by a body between two points.
 Displacement: - The change in position of an
object with respect to a given reference frame.
Cont…
Cont…
 Average and Instantaneous Velocities
 Average Velocity ( ):-is the total displacement
divided by the total time.
 i.e. …….……2.1.2
 Average Speed: - is the total distance traveled by
the object divided by the total elapsed time.
 ………… 2.1.3
 Average speed and average velocity of an object
do not provide the detail information of the entire
motion. We may need to know the velocity or
speed of the particle at a certain instant of time.
 Cont…

 Instantaneous Velocity (): - is the limiting value of

the ratio as approaches zero.
 I.e. …………………….. 2.1.4
 The instantaneous speed:- is the magnitude of
the instantaneous velocity.
 N.B .For uniform motion average velocity and
instantaneous velocity are the same.
 Average and Instantaneous Accelerations:
 If the velocity of a particle changes with time, then the
particle is said to be accelerating.
 Average acceleration:- is the change in velocity ( ) of an
object divided by the time interval during which that
change occurs. Mathematically,
 ………………. . 2.1.5
 Instantaneous acceleration: - The limit of average
acceleration as approaches zero is
 ………… 2.1.6
 N.B .For uniform accelerated motion (UAM) average
acceleration and instantaneous acceleration are the
same.
 Cont…
Example 1
1. A person walks first at a constant speed of 5m/s
along the straight line from point A to point B,
and then back along the same line from B to A at
a constant speed of 3m/s.
a) What is his average speed over the entire trip?
b) What is his average velocity over the entire trip?
Cont…
Activity 1
Moving object in the positive direction of the x-axis
with a relationship, as the following, x(t)=8 + 2t +3t 3
Where the distance is measured in meters and the
time in second.
A, find the instantaneous velocity of the object after
two seconds?
B, find the instantaneous acceleration of the object
after two seconds?
C, find the distance of the object after two seconds?
 Motion with Constant Acceleration
For motion with constant acceleration (UAM),
 The velocity changes at the same rate throughout the
motion.
 Average acceleration over any time interval is equal to the
instantaneous acceleration at any instant of time.
 Cont…
 For motion with constant acceleration, average velocity
can be written as:

 By definition
 Cont…
 Again,

 For 2D motion
 Cont…
 Example 1 A track covers 40m in 8.5s while smoothly slowing
down to a final speed of 2.8m/s. Find
a) its original speed
b) its acceleration
 Solution, We are given that ravt
 Cont…

Activity: 2. At t=0s, a particle moving in the x-y plane with

constant acceleration has a velocity of V⃗ ( -j ̂) m/s, and is
at the origin. At t=3s, the particle‘s velocity is Vf( + ̂) m/s.
Find
a) the acceleration of the particle
b) its coordinates at t=3s
 Free Fall Motion
 The motion of an object near the surface of the Earth under the
only control of the force of gravity is called free fall.
 In the absence of air resistance, all objects regardless to their
mass, fall with constant acceleration, g, toward the surface of
the Earth.
 A freely falling object is any object moving freely under the
influence of gravity alone.
 Free fall motion is constantly accelerated motion in one
dimension.
 When we deals with free fall motion
 Replace a = -g = -9.8m/
 Label position “ y ” instead of “ x ”
 Motion starts at y= 0.
 Cont…
 Example A girl throws a ball upwards, giving it an initial speed u
= 15 m/s. Neglect air resistance. (a) How long does the ball take to
return to the boy‘s hand? (b) What will be its velocity then?
 Solution: (a) We choose the positive y upward with its origin at the
girl‘s hand, i.e. yi =0, see the Fig. below. Then, the ball‘s
acceleration is negative (downward) during the ascending and
descending motions, i.e. a=−g=−9.8m/.
 When the ball returns to the girl‘s hand its position y is zero. Since
u=15m/s, yi=0, y=0, and a=−g, then we can find t from

 it follows:

(b) We are given u =15m/s, yi =0, y =0, and a =−g=− 9.8 m/. To find
v, we use

 We should select the negative sign, because the ball is moving

downward just before returning to the boy‘s hand, i.e. v =−15 m/s.
 Cont…
Activity1, A ball is dropped from a 100m tall tree. What is
the position and velocity of the ball after 1s, 2s and 3s?
Neglect air resistance.

100m
 Projectile Motion
 Projectile is any object thrown obliquely into the space.
The object which is given an initial velocity and afterwards
follows a path determined by the gravitational force acting
on it is called projectile and the motion is called projectile
motion.
Eg. A stone projected at an angle, A bomb released from an
aero plane, a shot fired from a gun and , shot put or javelin
thrown by the athlete are examples for the projectile.
 Consider a body projected from a point 'O' with velocity
'u'. The point 'o' is called point of projection and 'u' is
called velocity of projection.
Cont…
 Cont…
 Velocity of Projection (u): the velocity with which the body
projected.
 Angle of Projection (): The angle between the direction of
projection and the horizontal plane passing through the point of
projection is called angle of projection.
 Trajectory (OAB): The path described by the projectile from the
point of projection to the point where the projectile reaches the
horizontal plane passing through the point of projection is called
trajectory. The trajectory of the projectile is a parabola.
 Basic assumptions in projectile motion.
 The free fall acceleration (g) is constant over the range of motion
and it is directed downward.
 The effect of air resistance is negligible. With the above two
basic assumption the path of the projectile will be a down ward
parabola.
Cont…
 The point O is called
the point of projection; 
 θ is the angle of
projection and 
 OB = Horizontal Range or
Simply Range.
 The total time taken by the
particle from reaching O to
B is called the time of flight.
 Cont…
 With the above two basic assumption the path of the projectile will
be a down ward parabola.
 Cont…
 For projectile motion =- and (Because there is no force acting
horizontally).
 The horizontal position of the projectile after some time t is:

 ( ) = (0, 0) if the projectile is initially at the origin

 The vertical position of the projectile after some time t

 Cont…
 The horizontal components of the velocity

 The vertical components of the velocity

Horizontal Range and Maximum Height

When the projectile reaches the maximum height (the peak), ,
0 (time to reach maximum height)
 Cont…
The Range(R) is the horizontal displacement of the
projectile covered in a total time of flight.
 Cont…
 Example 1
A rocket is fired with an initial velocity of 100m/s at an angle of 55
above the horizontal. It explodes on the mountain side 12s after its
firing. What is the x-and y- coordinates of the rocket relative to its
firing point?
Solution: We are given that,

We are asked to find the horizontal position(x)

 and the vertical position (y) of the rocket

 Cont…
Activities .
1. A ball is thrown with an initial velocity of ⃗ (+15 ̂) m/s. When
it reaches the top of its trajectory, neglecting air resistance, what
is its a) velocity? b) Acceleration?
2. An astronaut on a strange planet can jump a maximum
horizontal distance of 15m if his initial speed is 3m/s. What is
the free fall acceleration on the planet?
 N.B :projectiles at complimentary angels attain the same
horizontal displacement (Range)
2.2. Particle Dynamics and Planetary

 Dynamics:-
Motion
which deals with the motion of objects with
its cause force.
 What cause particles to remain at rest or accelerate? It is
because of the mass of the object and forces acting on it.
 Newtonian dynamics was initially developed in order to
account for the motion of the Planets around the Sun,
which we discuss the problem in this part of the unit
while discussing Kepler‘s laws of planetary motion.
 Cont…
 Force:- is any interaction that changes the motion an object.
 A force moves or tends to move, stops or tends to stop the
motion of the object.
 The force can also change the direction of motion of an
object.
 It can also change the shape or size of a body on which it acts.

 Net force:- is defined as the vector sum of all the forces

acting on the object.
 The object accelerates only if the net force () acting on it is
not equal to zero.
2.2.1. The Concept of Force as a Measure of
Interaction
 In physics, any of the four basic forces gravitational,
electromagnetic, strong nuclear and weak forces
govern how particles interact.
 Conti….
 The fundamental interactions are characterized on the basis of
the following four criteria:
 the types of particles that experience the force,
 the relative strength of the force,
 the range over which the force is effective, and
 the nature of the particles that mediate the force.

2.2.2. TYPE OF FORCES

 Forces are usually categorized as contact and non-contact.
 Contact Force :- is a type of force that requires bodily contact with
another object.
 And it is further divided into the following.
 Muscular Forces Applied Force
 Frictional Forces Tension Force
 Normal Force Spring Force Air Resisting Force
 NON-CONTACT FORCE
 It is a type of force that does not require a physical
contact with the other object. Example
 Gravitational Force, Magnetic Force and
Electrostatic Force
2.2.3. Newton’s Laws of Motion and
Applications
 Newton's developed the three laws of motion in
order to explain why the orbits of the planets are
ellipses rather than circles, at which he succeeded.
 Newton‘s laws continue to give an accurate account
of nature, except for very small bodies such as
electrons or for bodies moving close to the speed of
light.
 Newton's first law of motion
 States that:- “every body continues in its state of rest or
of uniform motion in a straight line unless it is compelled
to change that state by forces impressed upon it.”
 This is sometimes called the Law of Inertia.
Essentially, it makes the following two points: An
object that is not in motion will not move until
a force acting upon it.
 An object in constant motion will not change
its velocity until a force acts upon it.
 Another way of stating Newton's First Law of
motion: “A body that is acted on by no net force
moves at a constant velocity (which may be
zero) and zero acceleration”.
 NEWTON'S SECOND LAW OF MOTION:
 The acceleration acquired by a point particle is
directly proportional to the net force acting on the
particle and inversely proportional to its mass and
the acceleration is always in the direction of the net
force.
 Mathematically, Σ F = ma ……………(2.2.1)
 You'll note that when the net forces on an object sum
up to zero, we achieve the state defined in Newton's
First Law: the net acceleration must be zero.
 Ifthe object is already moving, it will continue to
move at a constant velocity, but that velocity will not
change until a net force is introduced. Obviously, an
object at rest will not move at all without a net force.
 Cont…
 Example 1: A box with a mass of 40 kg sits at rest on a
frictionless tile floor. With your foot, you apply a 20 N force in a
horizontal direction. What is the acceleration of the box?
 Solution: The object is at rest, so there is no net force except for
the force your foot is applying. Friction is eliminated. Also, there's
only one direction of force to worry about. We begin the problem
by defining the coordinate system.

Example 2, A 3kg object undergoes an acceleration

given by m/s2, find the magnitude of the resultant
force.
 NEWTON'S THIRD LAW OF MOTION
 States that For every action there is always an equal and
opposite reaction.
 To understand this law, consider two bodies A and B that are
interacting and let is the force applied on body A by body B,
and is the force applied on body B by body A.
 These forces will be equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction. In mathematical terms, it is expressed as:

 This is not the same thing as having a net force is zero,

however. Action and reaction forces are not treated the same
as the forces acting on stationary object, normal force and
weight of the object.
 Note that: Action and reaction forces are:-
Equal in magnitude, opposite in direction, always exist in
pair, act on different objects.
 Cont…
Activities
1. Find the force needed to accelerate a mass of 40kg from velocity
-53)m/s to 5)m/s in 10 sec.
2. If a man weighs 900N on earth, what is his weight on Jupiter
where the acceleration due to gravity is 25.9m/?
FORCES OF FRICTION
 Frictional force refers to the force generated by two surfaces that
are in contact and either at rest or slide against each other.
 These forces are mainly affected by the surface texture and
amount of force impelling them together.
 The angle and position of the object affect the amount of
frictional force.
 If an object is placed on a horizontal surface against another
object, then the frictional force will be equal to the weight of
the object.
 Cont…..
 If an object is pushed against the surface, then
the frictional force will be increased and becomes
more than the weight of the object.
 Generally friction force is always proportional to
the normal force between the two interacting
surfaces.
 Mathematically :

= μ………………………………….(2.2.2)
 Forces of friction are very important in our everyday life.
 They allow us to walk or run and are necessary for the motion
of wheeled vehicles. Therefore, friction forces are categorized
in the following manner:
 Cont…
 Static friction: exists between two stationary objects in
contact to each other. Mathematically static friction is written
as:

 Kinetic friction:- arises when the object is in motion on the

surface.
 The magnitude of the force of kinetic friction acting between
two surfaces is:
 Where is called the coefficient of kinetic friction.

 The values of and depend on the nature of the surfaces, but is

generally less than (which implies that <. Typical values range
from around 0.03 to 1.0.
 Cont…
 The direction of the friction force on an object is parallel to
the surface with which the object is in contact and opposite to
the actual motion (kinetic friction) or the impending
motion (static friction) of the object relative to the surface.
 The coefficients of friction are nearly independent of the
area of contact between the surfaces.

Example: A 25.0-kg block is initially at rest on a horizontal

surface. A horizontal force of 75.0 N is required to set the
block in motion. After it is in motion, a horizontal force of
60.0 N is required to keep the block moving with constant
speed. Find the coefficients of static and kinetic friction from
this information.
 Cont…

Solution: We are given that

 APPLICATION OF NEWTON’S LAWS OF
MOTION
 In this section we apply Newton‘s laws to objects that are
either in equilibrium ( = 0) or accelerating along a straight line
under the action of constant external forces.
 The following procedure is recommended when
dealing with problems involving Newton‘s laws:
1. Draw a sketch of the situation.
2. Consider only one object (at a time), and draw a free-body
diagram for that body, showing all the forces acting on that body.
3. Newton's second law involves vectors, and it is usually
important to resolve vectors into components. Choose an x and y
axis in a way that simplifies the calculation.
4. For each body, Newton's second law can be applied to the x
and y components separately.
5. Solve the equation or equations for the unknown(s).
 Cont…
 Example: A bag of cement of weight 300 N hangs from three ropes
as shown in the figure below. Two of the ropes make angles of and
with the horizontal. If the system is in equilibrium, find the tensions
, and in the ropes.

Solution: We can draw two free body diagrams

for the problem as follows
 Cont…

Since the system is in equilibrium,

Cont…
 2.2.4. Uniform Circular Motion

 Do you know that objects moving with constant speed can have
acceleration? When does this occur?
The speed is constant, ‘v’
The velocity is not!
There is an acceleration
There is a net force
 Cont…

 Uniform Circular Motion is motion of objects in a circular path

with a constant speed.
 Objects moving in a circular path with a constant speed can
have acceleration.

 There are two ways in which the acceleration can occur due to:
 Change in magnitude of the velocity.

 Change in direction of the velocity.

 For objects moving in a circular path with a constant speed,

acceleration arises because of the change in direction of the
velocity.
 Hence, in case of uniform circular motion:

 Velocity is always tangent to the circular path and

perpendicular to the radius of the circular path.
 Cont…
 Acceleration is always perpendicular to the circular path, and points towards
the center of the circle. Such acceleration is called the centripetal
acceleration.
 Mathematicaly:

 Period (T):- Time required for one complete revolution.

For a particle moving in a circle of radius r with a constant speed.

Activity
1. An athlete rotates a discus along a circular path of radius
1.06m. If the maximum speed of the discus is 20m/s,
determine the magnitude of the maximum centripetal
acceleration?
2 .What is the centripetal acceleration of the Earth as it
moves in its orbit around the sun?
 2.2.5. Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation

 Gravity is the weakest of the four basic forces found in

nature, and in some ways the least understood.
 Newton was the first scientist to precisely define the
gravitational force, and to show that it could explain both falling
bodies and astronomical motions.
 The gravitational force is always attractive, and it
depends only on the masses involved and the distance between
them.
 Newton’s universal law of gravitation states that every
particle in the universe attracts every other particle with a force
along a line joining them.
 The force is directly proportional to the product of their masses
and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
them.
 Gravitational attraction is along a line joining the centers of
mass of these two bodies.
 Cont…

 The magnitude of the force is the same on each, consistent

with Newton‘s third law.

 Here, r is the distance between the centers of mass of the

bodies, G is the gravitational constant, whose value found by
experiment is
G= 6.674× N/ in SI units.
 Recall that the acceleration due to gravity g is about 9.8 on
Earth.
 Cont…
• The weight of an object mg is the gravitational force
between it and Earth. Substituting mg for F in Newton‘s
universal law of gravitation gives.

• Where m cancel out, then

Substituting known values for Earth‘s mass and radius (to three
significant figures), then

and we obtain a value for the acceleration of a falling body: which

is 9.8
 2.2.6. KEPLER’S LAWS, SATELLITES MOTION

 The basic laws of planetary motion were established

by Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) based on the analysis
of astronomical observations of Tycho Brahe
(1546−1601).
 In 1609, Kepler formulated the first two laws. The
third law was discovered in 1619.
 Later, in the late 17th century, Isaac Newton proved
mathematically that all three laws of Kepler are a
consequence of the law of universal gravitation.
 Kepler’s First Law (Law of Orbits)
Kepler’s first law (law of oribts) States that all
planets moves in elliptical orbits with the Sun at
one focus.
The points F1 and F2 are presented in figure are
known as the foci of the ellipse.
 KEPLER’S SECOND LAW (THE LAW OF AREAS)

 States that; “The radius vector connecting the centers of the

sun and the planet sweeps out equal areas in equal interval of
time.”
 It describes the speed (which is constantly changing) at which any
given planet will move while orbiting the sun.
 A planet moves fastest when it is closest to the sun and slowest
when it is furthest from the sun.
 KEPLER’S THIRD LAW (THE LAW OF
HARMONY)
States that “the square of the orbital period of a
planet is proportional to the cube of the average
distance between the centers of the planet and the sun.”
 UnlikeKepler's first and second laws that describe the
motion characteristics of a single planet, the third law makes
a comparison between the motion characteristics of different
planets.
 The comparison being made is that the ratio of the squares
of the periods to the cubes of their average distances from
the sun is the same for every one of the planets.
 Asan illustration, consider the orbital period and average
distance from sun (orbital radius) for Earth and mars as
given in the table below.
 Cont…

 Observe that the / ratio is the same for Earth as it is

for mars.
 In fact, if the same / ratio is computed for the other
planets, it can be found that this ratio is nearly the
same value for all the planets (see table below).
Amazingly, every planet has the same / ratio.
 2.3. WORK, ENERGY AND LINEAR MOMENTUM

Work
 The terms work and energy are quite familiar to us and we
use them in various contexts.
 Work can be defined as transfer of energy due to an applied
force.
 In physics, work is done when a force acts on an object
that undergoes a displacement from one position to another.
 Forces can vary as a function of position, and displacements
can be along various paths between two points.
 If no displacement takes place, no work is said to be done.
 Cont…
 Therefore for work to be done on an object, three essential
conditions should be satisfied:
a) Force must be exerted on the object.
b) The force must cause a motion or displacement.
c) The force should have a component along the line of
displacement .
 If a particle subjected to a constant force undergoes a
certain displacement, , the work done W by the force is
given:
 Cont…

 Work is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is Joule (J).

Where,
 The sign of work depends on the direction of force Hence, the work done
by the applied force is positive when the projection of F onto is in the
same direction as ⃗ .
 Cont…
 If the spring is either stretched or compressed a small
distance from its un-stretched (equilibrium)
configuration, it exerts on the block a force that can
be expressed as:

x is the position of the block relative to its

equilibrium (x = 0) position.
 k is a positive constant called the force constant or
the spring constant of the spring.
 Fs is called restoring force.
 Cont…

 Work done by the restoring force if the block undergoes an

arbitrary displacement from xi to xf is the area enclosed by the
graph.
 Activities
Example; A person pulls a 50kg crate 40m along a horizontal
floor by a constant force Fp=100N which acts at a 37 degree
angle as shown. The floor is the smooth and exerts no friction
force. Determine a) the work done by each force acting on the
crate.

 Example: A particle is subject to a force that varies with position

as in figure below. What is the total work done by the force over
the distance, x= 0 to x = 15.0 m?
Cont…
 ENERGY
 Energy is defined as the capacity of a physical system to perform
work.
 It exists in several forms such as;
 Kinetic energy
 Potential energy
 Thermal energy
 chemical and other forms. And its SI unit is joule (J).
 Kinetic energy (KE): is the capacity of an object to do work by virtue
of its motion.
 It is the energy of a body possess because of its motion.
 For an object of mass m and moving with speed v, the kinetic energy
is calculated as:
 Cont…
Potential Energy (PE): is the energy that is stored in an
object due to its position relative to some zero position.
 An object possesses gravitational potential energy if it is
positioned at a height above (or below) the zero height.
 The potential energy concept can be used only when
dealing with a special class of forces called conservative
forces.
 Mathematically the potential energy is given by:
 WORK- ENERGY THEOREM
 We should consider the work done by all the forces acting on a
particle, or the network, to see what effect it has on the particle‘s
motion.
 Let a force F‘ is applied on an object initially moving with velocity
u’. If it is displaced to a displacement s’ and changes its velocity into
v, then its motion will be expressed by:

Multiplying this equation by m’ and dividing throughout by 2, we

get:
Hence,

where F is the force that caused the havoc!

 Cont…
 Therefore, we can write,

 where W = Fs is the work done by this force.

 So what just happened? We just proved that,

1/2(m) – 1/2(m) is the work done by the force!

In other words, the work done is equal to the change in K.E. of the
object! This is the Work-Energy theorem.
 or the relation between Kinetic energy and Work done. In other
words, the work done on an object is the change in its kinetic energy.

 The work-kinetic energy theorem states that: In the case in which

work is done on a system and the only change in the system is in its
speed.
 Cont…
Example
A 0.600-kg particle has a speed of 2.00 m/s at point A and kinetic
energy of 7.50 J at point B. What is (a) its kinetic energy at A?
(b) its speed at B? (c) the total work done on the particle as it
moves from A to B?
 Cont…

 Mechanical Energy (ME): is defined as the sum of kinetic energy

and potential energy.
 Consider the book-earth system shown in the figure below. As the
book falls from to , the work done by the gravitational force on the
book is

 From the work–kinetic energy theorem, the work done on the book
is equal to the change in the kinetic energy of the book:
 Cont…

 As the book falls from initial height to a final height

 The mechanical energy of an isolated, friction-free system is

conserved.
 An isolated system is one for which there are no energy transfers
across the boundary. For the object of mass m falling in a
gravitational field.
 Cont…

Activity: A ball of mass m is dropped from a height h above

the ground. Neglecting air resistance, (a) determine the
speed of the ball when it is at a height y above the ground.

(b) Determine the speed of the ball at y if at the instant of

release it already has an initial upward speed vi at the initial
altitude h.
 Cont…
 Activity A 3.00-kg crate slides down a ramp. The ramp is 1.00m in
length and inclined at an angle of 30.0°, as shown in the figure
below. The crate starts from rest at the top, experiences a constant
friction force of magnitude 5.00 N, and continues to move a short
distance on the horizontal floor after it leaves the ramp. Use energy
methods to determine the speed of the crate at the bottom of the
ramp.
 Cont…
 Solution: Since the non-conservative force (friction force) exists in
the system,
 POWER
 Power is defined as the time rate of energy transfer. If an external
force is applied to an object (which we assume acts as a particle), and
if the work done by this force in the time interval Δt is W, then the
average power during this interval is defined as :

 The instantaneous power P is defined as the limiting value of the

average power as Δt approaches zero:
 Cont…

 In general, power is defined for any type of energy transfer.

Therefore, the most general expression for power is

 The SI unit of power is joules per second (J/s), also called the watt
(W) (after James Watt):

 A unit of power in the U.S. customary system is the horsepower (hp):

 A unit of energy (or work) can now be defined in terms of the unit of
power. One kilowatt-hour (kWh) is the energy transferred in 1 h at
the constant rate of 1 kW = 1 000 J/s. The amount of energy
represented by 1 kWh is:
 Cont…
 Example An older model car accelerates from rest to speed v in 10
seconds. A newer, more powerful car accelerates from rest to 2v in
the same time period. What is the ratio of the power of the newer car
to that of the older car?
 Solution :
Activity
The electric motor of a model train accelerates the train
from rest to 0.620 m/s in 21.0s. The total mass of the train
is 875 g. Find the average power delivered to the train
during the acceleration.