Musculoskeletal System

TEFERA(M.SC)

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 Introduction
The bones, muscles, and joints together form an
integrated system called the musculoskeletal system.

The entire framework of bones and their cartilages

constitute the skeletal system.

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 Functions of the Skeletal System

1. Support : by supporting soft tissues and providing points of

attachment
2. Protection
3. Assistance in movement
4. Mineral homeostasis: calcium & phosphorus
5. Blood cell production
Red bone marrow produces RBCs, WBCs & Platelets
6. Triglyceride storage
Yellow bone marrow consists mainly of adipose cells, which
store triglycerides
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 Types of Bones
Based on their shape 3) Flat bones
1) Long bones are generally thin, afford considerable
have greater length than width and protection, and provide extensive
consist of a shaft surfaces for muscle attachment.

include femur, tibia, fibula, humerus, include the cranial bones, sternum, ribs
ulna, radius , and fingers and and scapulae (shoulder blades).
phalanges.

4) Irregular bones
2) Short bones have complex shapes
are somewhat cube-shaped and nearly include the vertebrae and some facial
equal in length and width. bones.
include most wrist and ankle bones.

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Classification of Bones on the Basis of Shape

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 Macroscopic Structure of Bone
A typical long bone consists of the following seven
parts:
1. Diaphysis
It is the bone’s shaft
main portion of the bone
2. Epiphyses
They are the distal and proximal ends of the bone.
3. Metaphyses
are the regions in a mature bone where the
diaphysis joins the epiphyses.
4. Articular cartilage
is a thin layer of hyaline cartilage that covering the
part of the epiphysis where the bone forms an
articulation with another bone.
reduces friction and absorbs shock at freely
movable joints. 6
 Macroscopic Structure of Bone…
5. Periosteum
contains bone-forming cells that enable bone to
grow in diameter or thickness, but not in length.
It also protects the bone, assists in fracture
repair, helps nourish bone tissue, and serves as
an attachment point for ligaments and tendons.
6. Medullary cavity or marrow cavity
is a hollow, cylindrical space within the diaphysis
contains fatty yellow bone marrow in adults.
7. Endosteum
is a thin membrane that lines the medullary
cavity.
It contains a single layer of bone-forming cells.

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 Microscopic Structure of Bone
Four major types of cells are present in bone tissue:
1. Osteogenic cells
◦ They are unspecialized stem cells derived from mesenchyme
◦ They are the only bone cells to undergo cell division.
◦ are found along the inner portion of the periosteum, in the endosteum, and in the
canals within bone that contain blood vessels.

2. Osteoblasts
◦ are bone-building cells.
◦ They synthesize and secrete collagen fibers

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 Types of cells in bone tissue…
3. Osteocytes
◦ Are mature bone cells
◦ are the main cells in bone tissue and maintain its daily metabolism, such as the exchange
of nutrients and wastes with the blood.

4. Osteoclasts
◦ Bone-destroying cells
◦ Break down bone matrix for remodeling and release of Ca

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Compact and Spongy bones

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The Structure of a typical Bone
1) Compact Bone Tissue
It is arranged in repeating structural
It is the strongest type of bone tissue. units called osteons or haversian
systems.
It is found beneath the periosteum of
all bones Blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and
nerves from the periosteum penetrate
makes up the bulk of the diaphyses of the compact bone through transverse
long bones. perforating (Volkmann's) canals.
It provides protection and support
and resists the stresses produced by
weight and movement.
It contains few spaces

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Compact bone & Spongy bone

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 Compact Bone Tissue…
Each osteon has four parts: Canaliculi
Lamellae are networks of minute canals
containing the processes of osteocytes.
are concentric rings of extracellular
matrix that consist of mineral salts provide routes for nutrients to reach
(mostly calcium and phosphates). osteocytes and for wastes to leave them.
Lacunae are filled with extracellular fluid
Small spaces between the lamellae A central (haversian) canal
Contain osteocytes contains blood vessels and nerves

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Spongy Bone Tissue
It does not contain osteons.
It consists of units called trabeculae
makes up most of the bone tissue of
short, flat, and irregularly shaped bones.
It also forms most of the epiphyses of
long bones and a narrow rim around the
medullary cavity of the diaphysis of long
bones.
spongy bone tissue is light
The trabeculae of spongy bone tissue
support and protect the red bone
marrow.

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Match the following

1. run lengthwise through bone; A. lamellae

contain blood vessels and nerves
B. lacunae
2. connect central canals with
lacunae C. perforating (volkmann’s) canal

3. concentric rings of matrix D. canaliculi

4. connect nutrient arteries and E. central (haversian) canal

nerves from the periosteum to the
central canals
5. spaces that contain osteocytes

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Divisions of the Skeletal System

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Divisions of the skeletal system

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 Bone markings & Formation…
Bone markings appear wherever tendons, 5. Facet: smooth flat area,
usually covered with cartilage,
ligaments, and fascia's are attached or where where a bone articulates with
another bone (e.g., the superior
arteries lie adjacent to or enter bones. costal facet on the body of a
vertebra for articulation with a
1. Capitulum: small, round, articular head (e.g., rib).
the capitulum of the humerus). 6. Foramen: passage through a
bone (e.g., the obturator
foramen).
2. Condyle: rounded, knuckle-like articular area,
7. Fossa: hollow or depressed
usually occurring in pairs (e.g., the lateral area (e.g., the infraspinous fossa
of the scapula).
femoral condyle).
8. Groove: elongated depression
or furrow (e.g., the radial groove
3. Crest: ridge of bone (e.g., the iliac crest).
of the humerus).
4. Epicondyle: eminence superior to a condyle 9. Head : large, round articular
end (e.g., the head of the
(e.g., the lateral epicondyle of the humerus). humerus). 18
 Bone markings & Formation…
10. Line: linear elevation (e.g., the soleal 15. Trochanter: large blunt elevation (e.g.,
line of the tibia). the greater trochanter of the femur).
11. Malleolus: rounded process (e.g., the
16. Trochlea: process that acts as a pulley
lateral malleolus of the fibula).
(e.g., trochlea of the humerus).
12. Notch: indentation at the edge of a
bone (e.g., the greater sciatic notch). 17. Tubercle: small raised eminence (e.g.,
the greater tubercle of the humerus).
13. Protuberance: projection of bone (e.g.,
the external occipital protuberance). 18. Tuberosity: large rounded elevation
14. Spinous process: projecting spine-like (e.g., the ischial tuberosity).
part (e.g., the spinous process of a
vertebra).

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 Skull and Hyoid Bone

The skull, which contains 22 bones, Fourteen facial bones form the face:
rests on top of the vertebral column. 2 nasal bones,
It includes two sets of bones: cranial 2 maxillae,
bones and facial bones.
2 zygomatic bones,
The eight cranial bones form the
cranial cavity that encloses and mandible,
protects the brain.
2 lacrimal bones,
They are the frontal bone, two parietal
bones, two temporal bones, occipital 2 palatine bones,
bone, sphenoid bone, and ethmoid 2 inferior nasal conchae,
bone.
Vomer.
The foramen magnum is the largest
foramen in the skull

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Skull

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Facial bones

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Unique Features of the Skull
1) Sutures
is an immovable joint in most cases in an adult that holds
skull bones together.
Prominent skull suture:
Coronal suture
unites the frontal bone and two parietal bones.
Sagittal suture
unites the two parietal bones.
Lambdoid suture
unites the parietal bones to the occipital bone.
Squamous sutures 23
 Unique Features of the Skull …
2) Paranasal Sinuses
are cavities in bones of the skull that
communicate with the nasal cavity.
Are lined with mucous membranes
Skull bones containing paranasal
sinuses include the frontal bone (frontal
sinus), sphenoid bone (sphenoid sinus),
ethmoid bone (ethmoidal sinuses), and
maxillae (maxillary sinuses).
Produce mucus and serve as resonating
chambers
Sinusitis is an inflammation of the
mucous membrane of one or more
paranasal sinuses.

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 Unique Features of the Skull …
3) Fontanels
are mesenchyme-filled spaces between the cranial bones of
fetuses and infants.
include the anterior fontanel, the posterior fontanel, the
anterolateral fontanels, and the posterolateral fontanels.
unossified mesenchyme will eventually be replaced with
bone
enable the fetal skull to be compressed as it passes through
the birth canal and
permit rapid growth of the brain during infancy.

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Unique Features of the Skull …

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Hyoid Bone
It is a unique component of the axial skeleton
◦ because it does not articulate with or attach to any other bone.
◦ Rather, it is suspended from the styloid processes of the temporal
bones by ligaments and muscles.
It is located in the neck b/n the mandible & larynx
It supports the tongue and
Provides attachment sites for some tongue muscles and for
muscles of the neck and pharynx.

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Hyoid …

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 Vertebral Column
also called the spine/spinal column/backbone
The total number of vertebrae during early development is 33.
Then, several vertebrae in the sacral and coccygeal regions
fuse.
As a result, the adult vertebral column typically contains 26
vertebrae.
Functions of the Vertebral Column
1. Permits movement.
2. Encloses and protects the spinal cord.
3. Serves as a point of attachment for the ribs and muscles of
the back.
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 Regions of the Vertebral Column
■ 7 cervical vertebrae in the neck region.
■ 12 thoracic vertebrae posterior to the
thoracic cavity.
■ 5 lumbar vertebrae support the lower
back.
■ 1 sacrum consists of five fused sacral
vertebrae.
■ 1 coccyx usually consists of four fused
coccygeal vertebrae
The sacrum and coccyx are immovable.
Intervertebral discs
◦ are found between adjacent vertebrae
from the second cervical vertebra to the
sacrum.

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Structure of a typical vertebra

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Sacrum and coccyx

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 Caudal Anesthesia
Anesthetic agents that act on the sacral and coccygeal
nerves are sometimes injected through the sacral hiatus, a
procedure called caudal anesthesia or epidural block.
The procedure is used most often to relieve pain during
labor and to provide anesthesia to the perineal area.
◦ Because the sacral hiatus is between the sacral cornua, the cornua
are important bony landmarks for locating the hiatus.
Anesthetic agents may also be injected through the
posterior sacral foramina.

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 Thorax
The skeletal portion of the thorax, the
thoracic cage, is a bony cage formed by
the sternum, costal cartilages, ribs, and
the bodies of the thoracic vertebrae.
Sternum
located in the center of the anterior
thoracic wall
Contain manubrium, body of the
sternum & xiphoid process

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 True ribs I-VII Intercostal space
Costal cartilage

Floating ribs
False ribs VIII-XII
01/12/2023
Costal margin
RESPIRATORY ANATOMY 35
 Ribs
Twelve pairs
True ribs:
◦ 1st to 7th pairs
◦ have a direct anterior attachment to the sternum by costal cartilage

False ribs:
◦ 8th to 12th pairs
◦ their costal cartilages either attach indirectly to the sternum or do not attach to the
sternum at all.

Floating ribs
◦ 11th and 12th pairs ribs
◦ The costal cartilage at their anterior ends does not attach to the sternum at all.
◦ attach only posteriorly to the thoracic vertebrae.

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 Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle
Attach the bones of the upper limbs to the axial skeleton and
do not articulate with the vertebral column.
Clavicle /S-shaped- the anterior component
◦ articulates medially with the manubrium of the sternum and laterally with the acromion of
the scapula.
◦ If the force transmitted to the clavicle is excessive, as when you fall on your outstretched arm,
a fractured clavicle may result

Scapula-the posterior component

◦ articulates with the clavicle at the acromioclavicular joint and with the humerus at the
glenohumeral (shoulder) joint.

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Right pectoral (shoulder) girdle

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Right scapula (shoulder blade

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 Upper Limb bones

Each upper limb consists of 30 bones.

Each upper limb includes a humerus in the arm; ulna and
radius in the forearm; and 8 carpals, 5 metacarpals and 14
phalanges in the hand.
The ulna is on the medial aspect (little-finger side) of the
forearm and is longer than the radius.
The radius is located on the lateral aspect (thumb side) of
the forearm.

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Right humerus in relation to the scapula, ulna, and radius

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 Humerus, ulna, and radius
The greater tubercle

◦ It is the most laterally palpable bony landmark of the shoulder

region

Humeral head articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula to

form the glenohumeral joint.

Deltoid tuberosity serves as a point of attachment for the tendons of

the deltoid muscle.

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Upper limb …

The surgical neck

◦ is below the anatomical neck and is so named because fractures
often occur here.

The humerus
◦ is the longest and largest bone of the upper limb.

The elbow joint is formed by two articulations:

◦ 1) the trochlear notch of the ulna with the trochlea of the humerus
and
◦ 2) the head of the radius with the capitulum of the humerus.
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Ulna and Radius
The ulna is on the medial aspect (little-finger side) of the
forearm and is longer than the radius.

The radius is located on the lateral aspect (thumb side) of

the forearm.

The distal end of the radius articulates with three carpal

bones of the wrist.

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Right ulna and radius

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 Carpals, Metacarpals, and Phalanges

In about 70% of carpal fractures, only the scaphoid is broken because
of the force transmitted through it to the radius.

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Right wrist and hand

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 Pelvic (Hip) Girdle
consists of the two hip bones
provides a strong, stable support for the vertebral column,
protects the pelvic viscera, and attaches the lower limbs to the
axial skeleton.
Together with the sacrum and coccyx, the two hip bones of
the pelvic girdle form a basinlike structure called the pelvis.
Each of the two hip bones of a newborn is composed of three
parts: the ilium, the pubis, and the ischium.
The ilium is the largest of the three subdivisions of the hip
bone.
On the lower surface is the greater sciatic notch through
which the sciatic nerve, the longest nerve in the body, passes.
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Hip bones
The hip bones unite anteriorly at the pubic symphysis and posteriorly at
the sacrum to form the bony pelvis.

The acetabulum is the socket for the head of the femur where the three
parts of the hip bone converge and ossify

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Female Pelvic (Hip) Girdle

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 Female pelvic (hip) girdle
In turn, the bony pelvis is divided into upper and
lower portions by a boundary called the pelvic
brim.
The part of the pelvis above the pelvic brim is
called the false (greater) pelvis.
The false pelvis is actually part of the abdomen
and does not contain any pelvic organs, except
for the urinary bladder, when it is full, and the
uterus during pregnancy.
The part of the pelvis below the pelvic brim is
called the true (lesser) pelvis.
The true pelvis surrounds the pelvic cavity.
The upper opening of the true pelvis is called the
pelvic inlet, and the lower opening of the true
pelvis is called the pelvic outlet.

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 Pelvimetry
Pelvimetry is the measurement of the size of the inlet and
outlet of the birth canal, which may be done by
ultrasonography or physical examination.
Measurement of the pelvic cavity in pregnant females is
important because the fetus must pass through the narrower
opening of the pelvis at birth.
A caesarean section is usually planned if it is determined that
the pelvic cavity is too small to permit passage of the baby.

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Comparison of Female and Male Pelvis

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Comparison of Female and Male Pelvis…

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Comparison of Female and Male Pelvis…

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 Lower Limb
Each lower limb is composed of 30 bones:
◦ the femur in the thigh

◦ the patella

◦ the tibia and fibula in the leg and

◦ 7 tarsals

◦ 5 metatarsals and

◦ 14 phalanges in the foot

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 Femur
is the longest, heaviest, and strongest bone in the body.
◦ Its proximal end articulates with the hip bone, and its distal end
articulates with the tibia and patella.

The head of the femur articulates with the acetabulum of the hip bone
to form the hip joint.

A fairly common fracture in the elderly occurs at the neck of the femur.

The greater trochanter is a projection felt and seen in front of the

hollow on the side of the hip.
◦ It is where some of the thigh and buttock muscles attach

◦ serves as a landmark for IM injections in the thigh. 57

Lower limbs

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Tibia and Fibula
The tibia, or shin bone
◦ is the larger, medial, weight-bearing bone of the leg.

◦ articulates at its proximal end with the femur and fibula,

and at its distal end with the fibula and talus of the ankle.

The fibula
◦ is parallel and lateral to the tibia and is considerably
smaller than the tibia.

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Tibia and Fibula

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 Tarsals, Metatarsals, and Phalanges
The tarsus of the foot contains seven bones
The posterior part of the ankle
◦ talus and calcaneus
The anterior part of the ankle
◦ cuboid , navicular, and three cuneiform bones called the first,
second, and third cuneiforms.
The talus is the only bone of the foot that articulates with the fibula
and tibia.
During walking, the talus initially bears the entire weight of the body.

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Right foot

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 Joints
are point of contact between bones, between cartilage and
bones, or between teeth and bones.
are classified
◦ Structurally- based on their anatomical characteristics, &
◦ Functionally- based on the type of movement they permit.

The structural classification of joints is based on two

criteria:
◦ the presence or absence of a space between the articulating bones,
called a synovial cavity, and
◦ the type of connective tissue that holds the bones together.

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Classification of joints
Functional
Structural classification classification
■ Fibrous joints : There is no synovial cavity and ■ Synarthrosis :
the bones are held together by connective tissue
that is rich in collagen fibers.
An immovable
joint.
■ Cartilaginous joints : There is no synovial
cavity and the bones are held together by cartilage. ■ Amphiarthrosis:
■ Synovial joints: The bones forming the joint A slightly movable
have a synovial cavity and are united by joint.
connective tissue of an articular capsule, and often
by accessory ligaments.
■ Diarthrosis:
A freely movable
joint.

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 Fibrous Joints
1.suture
unite the bones of the skull
2. syndesmosis
is a fibrous joint in which there is a greater
distance between the articulating surfaces
and more dense irregular CT than in a
suture.
◦ distal tibiofibular joint
◦ a gomphosis or dentoalveolar joint : are
the articulations between the roots of the
teeth and their sockets (alveoli) in the
maxillae and mandible
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 Fibrous Joints…
3. Interosseous membrane
◦ a substantial sheet of dense
irregular CT that binds
neighbouring long bones and
◦ permits slight movement
(amphiarthrosis).
◦ One occurs between the radius
and ulna in the forearm and the
other occurs between the tibia and
fibula in the leg
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 Cartilaginous Joints
1. synchondrosis
◦ is a cartilaginous joint in which the
connecting material is hyaline cartilage
◦ is the epiphyseal (growth) plate that
connects the epiphysis and diaphysis of
an elongating bone
◦ synchondrosis is functionally a
synarthrosis, an immovable joint.
2. symphysis
◦ The pubic symphysis between the
anterior surfaces of the hip bones
◦ intervertebral joints between bodies of
vertebrae.
◦ Functionally, a symphysis is an
amphiarthrosis
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 Synovial Joints
The distinguishing feature of a
synovial joint is the synovial
cavity between the articulating
bones.
Synovial fluid lubricates the
synovial cavity, which is located
between the synovial membrane
and the articular cartilage

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 Types of Synovial Joints
planar joint
◦ the articulating surfaces are flat, and the bones glide back-and-forth
and side-to-side (many are biaxial);
◦ examples are joints between carpals and tarsals.

hinge joint
◦ the convex surface of one bone fits into the concave surface of
another, and the motion is angular around one axis
◦ examples are the elbow, knee (a modified hinge joint), and ankle
joints.
a pivot joint
◦ a round or pointed surface of one bone fits into a ring formed by
another bone and a ligament, and movement is rotational
◦ examples are the atlanto-axial and radioulnar joints.
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Types of synovial joints…

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 Types of Synovial Joints…
condyloid joint
◦ an oval projection of one bone fits into an oval cavity of another, and motion is
angular around two axes
◦ examples include the wrist joint and metacarpophalangeal joints of the second
through fifth digits.
saddle joint
◦ the articular surface of one bone is shaped like a saddle and the other bone fits
into the “saddle” like a sitting rider; motion is angular around three axes.
◦ An example is the carpometacarpal joint between the trapezium and the
metacarpal of the thumb.
I ball-and-socket joint
◦ the ball-shaped surface of one bone fits into the cuplike depression of another;
motion is around three axes.
◦ Examples include the shoulder and hip joints.

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Types of Synovial Joints…

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 Skeletal Muscles of the body
Skeletal muscles produce movements by pulling on tendons
attached to bones.

The attachment to the more stationary bone is the origin;

the attachment to the more movable bone is the insertion.

The fleshy portion of the muscle between the tendons of the

origin and insertion is called the belly.

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 ..
A muscle that causes a desired action is referred to as the prime
mover or agonist.

The antagonist has an effect opposite to that of the prime mover.

Synergists help the prime mover function more efficiently by

reducing unnecessary movement around joint area.

Fixators stabilize the origin of the prime mover so that the prime
mover can act more efficiently.

compartment is a section within the body that contains muscles and

nerves and is surrounded by fascia.

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 Match the following
1) Muscle that stabilizes the origin of the prime mover (1) compartment

2) Site of muscle attachment to a stationary bone (2) origin

3) Muscle that stretches to allow desired motion
(3) insertion
4) Muscle that contracts to stabilize intermediate joints
(4) belly
5) Site of muscle attachment to a movable bone
(5) synergist
6) Group of muscles, along with their blood and nerves,
that have a common function (6) fixator

7) Contracting muscle that produces the desired motion (7) prime mover (agonist)

8) Fleshy part of the muscle (8) antagonist

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 Naming skeletal muscles
1. Direction of muscle fibres relative to the midline of the body or
longitudinal axis of a structure
Rectus means the fibres run parallel to the midline of the body or
longitudinal axis of a structure.
◦ Example, rectus abdominis
Transverse means the fibres run perpendicular to the midline
longitudinal axis of a structure.
◦ Example, transverse abdominis
Oblique means the fibres run diagonally to the midline longitudinal
axis of a structure.
◦ Example, external oblique

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 Naming skeletal muscles…
2. Location−structure to which a muscle is found closely related
Example: Frontal, a muscle near the frontal bone Tibialis anterior,
a muscle near the front of tibia
3. Size−relative size of the muscle

Maximus means largest. Example, gluteus maximus

Minimus means smallest. Example, gluteus minimus

Longus means longest. Example, Adductor longus

Brevis means short. Example, Peroneous brevis

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 Naming skeletal muscles…
4. Number of origins−number of tendons of origin Biceps means two origins.
Example, biceps brachii Triceps means three origins.
◦ Example, triceps brachii Quadriceps means four origins.

◦ Example, quadriceps femoris

5. Shape −relative shape of the muscle

Deltoid means triangular. Example, deltoid

Trapezius means trapezoid. Example, trapezius

Serratus means saw-toothed. Example, serratus anterior

Rhomboideus means rhomboid or diamond shape.

◦ Example, Rhomboideus major
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 Naming skeletal muscles…
6. Origin and insertion−sites where muscles originates and inserts
◦ Example, sternocleidomastoid−originates on sternum and clavicle
and inserts on mastoid process of temporal bone.
7. Action−principal action of the muscle
Flexor: decrease the angle at a joint.
◦ Example, flexor carporadialis
Extensor: increases the angle at a joint.
◦ Example, extensor carpiulnaris
Abductor: moves a bone away from the midline.
◦ Example, abductor policis brevis

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Naming skeletal muscles…
Adductor: moves a bone closer to the midline.
◦ Example, adductor longus

Levator: produces an upward movement.

◦ Example, levator labii superioris

Depressor: produces a downward movement.

◦ Example, depressor labii inferioris

Supinator: turns the palm upward or anteriorly.

◦ Example, supinator

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Naming skeletal muscles…
Pronator: turns the palm downward or posteriorly.
◦ Example, pronator teres

Sphincter: control the size of an opening.

◦ Example, external anal sphincter

Tensor: makes a body part more rigid.

◦ Example, tensor fasciae latae

Rotator: moves a bone around its longitudinal axis.

◦ Example, obturator externus

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Principal skeletal muscles

Although there are over 700 individual skeletal muscles in the human
body, an appreciation and understanding of skeletal muscles can be
accomplished by concentrating on the large superficial muscles and
muscle groups.

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Head and neck muscles

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Head and neck muscles

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Trunk muscles

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Upper limb muscles

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Muscles that move the forearm

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Muscles that move the wrist and
fingers

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Lower limb muscles

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END
…

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