CEC 208

Geotechnical Engineering
 Syllabus

 Physical Properties: Overview of soil formation, Soil structure

and clay mineralogy, Soil phase relationships, Index properties of
granular and fine-grained soils, Soil classification systems.
 Compaction: General principles, Factors affecting compaction,
Standard and modified Proctor tests, Effect of compaction on
engineering properties, Field compaction.
 Permeability and Seepage: Permeability of soils, Darcy’s law,
Equivalent permeability in stratified soils, In-situ and laboratory
permeability test, Types of heads and seepage forces, Total and
effective stress, Two-dimensional Laplace’s equation, Flow nets,
Uplift pressure, Exit gradient and piping, Filter criteria.
 Syllabus

 Compressibility and Consolidation: Components of the total settlement,

Compressibility of granular and fine-grained soils, Terzaghi’s 1-D
consolidation theory, Consolidation test, Determination of preconsolidation
stress, Overconsolidation ratio, Computation of settlement, Secondary
consolidation.
 Shear Strength: Mechanism of shear resistance, Mohr-Coulomb failure
criterion, Measurement of shear strength: Direct shear test, Unconfined
compression test, Vane shear test, Triaxial shear test (CD, CU, UU), Pore-
pressure parameters, Stress path, Shear strength of clays and sands.
 Stress Distribution: Boussinesq’s equation, Vertical stress due to line load,
strip load, Uniformly loaded circular area, Westergaard’s approach, Pressure
bulb concept, Approximate methods.
 Introduction

“Soil Mechanics is one of the discipline of Civil

Engineering involving the study of soil, its behavior and
application as an engineering material”

*According to Terzaghi (1948): "Soil Mechanics is the

application of laws of mechanics and hydraulics to
engineering problems dealing with sediments and other
unconsolidated accumulations of solid particles
produced by the mechanical and chemical disintegration
of rocks regardless of whether or not they contain an
admixture of organic constituent."
Soil Formation
 (c)2001 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license.

Yehliu, Taiwan
Figure A Mechanical erosion due to ocean waves and wind at
 (c)2001 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license.

waves and wind at Yehliu, Taiwan

Figure Mechanical erosion due to ocean
 (c)2001 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license.

Taiwan
Figure Mechanical erosion due to ocean waves and wind at Yehliu,
 (c)2001 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license.

Yehliu, Taiwan
to ocean waves and wind at
Figure Mechanical erosion due
 Soil Formation

Rock Weathering : It is the process of disintegration and

decomposition of rocks and minerals at or near the earth’s surface
through the actions of mechanical and chemical agents into smaller
and smaller grains.

Factors affecting Weathering:

1. Changes in Temperature and Pressure
2. Erosion and transportation by wind, water and glaciers
3. Chemical action such as crystal groth, oxidation, hydration,
cabonation and leaching by water.
Rock weathering is of two types

1. Physical or Mechanical : Soil formed by mechanical

weathering bear a similarity in certain properties to the
minerals in the parent rock, since chemical changes
which could destroy their identity do not take place.
Temperature variations are responsible to great extent
for physical weathering. It manifest in two ways;
through the so called frost action in the cold humid
climates and through thermal effects in hot dry
regions.
 FROST ACTION:
In areas where climate conditions are such that temperature often falls below the
freezing point of water during winter and where humidity is high, freezing of
water contained in cavities is a common phenomenon.
This process effects the rocks which are highly jointed or porous in nature. Water
trapped in the cracks, cavities of these rocks freezes and expands during low
temperature period thereby exerting a pushing pressure on the sides of these
openings which leads to widening of these openings or cavities. This freezing
and thawing cycle will lead to partial or total disintegration of the rock into
smaller pieces.
These fragments are angular or sub angular in outline and may remain over the
rock from which they have been broken. But when the slope is steeper and
vegetation is less, these fragments roll down along the slope and are deposited
near the base.
THERMAL EFFECTS:
The effect of change of temperature on rock is of considerable
importance in arid and semi-arid regions where difference
between day-time and night time temperatures is often very high.
This temperature fluctuations produce physical disintegration
which breaks the rock into smaller pieces due to stresses
developing by expansion and contraction.
Chemical Weathering
It is a process of alteration of rocks of the earth’s crust by chemical decomposition brought about by
weathering agencies. The chemical changes take place in the presence of rain water in which are dissolved
many active gases from the atmosphere like Co2, N2, H2 and water vapors. These chemical changes are
brought about by the following processes.

SOLUTION: Some rocks contain one or more minerals that can be removed in solution by water. Lime
stone and other carbonates are important examples.

HYDRATION AND HYDROLYSIS: The process involving addition of water molecule is called hydration.

CaSO4 + 2. H2O = CaSO4. 2H2O

The process involving exchange of ions is called “Hydrolysis”

K+AlSi3O8 + H+ = HAl. Si3O8 + K+

The process of hydration is important in the weathering of silicate minerals with iron
as important constituent and that of hydrolysis in the weathering of complex silicates
of ignious and metamorphic rocks.
OXIDATION AND REDUCTION: Iron is a chief constituent of many minerals and
rocks. These iron containing materials susceptible to chemical weathering through
the process of oxidation and reduction.
2FeS2 + 2 O2 +2 H2O = 2FeSO4 + 2H2SO4
The process of reduction results in the reduction of ferric iron and is brought about in
the presence of special type of environment where soil is rich in decaying vegetation.

CARBONATION: It is the process of formation of bicarbonates and carbonates from

the weathering of certain other minerals under the influence of atmospheric carbon
dioxide.

2KAlSi3O8 +2H2O + CO2 = Al2 SiO2 O5 (OH)4 + 4 SiO2 +K2CO3

 General Types of Soil
Residual Soils
Soils which are formed by weathering of rocks may remain in position at the
place of origin. In that case these are “residual soils”. Residual soils tend to
be more abundant in humid and warm zones where conditions are favorable
to chemical weathering of rocks and have sufficient vegetation to keep the
products of weathering from being easily transported as sediments. These
soils have the following characteristics.
1.Sizes of grains are not definite because of the partially disintegrated
condition.
2.Grains may break into smaller grains with the application of little pressure.
Transported Soils
The soils which are transported from the place of origin by various agencies
such as wind, water, ice, gravity etc. and get deposited when favorable
conditions like a decrease of velocity occur. These soils have the following
characteristics.
1.High degree of alteration of particle shape, size and texture
Transported soils are further subdivided into the following types.
1. Alluvial Soils: Soils transported by rivers and streams such as
sedimentary clays.
2. Aeolian Soil: Soils transported by wind such as Loess.
3. Glacial soils. Soils transported by glaciers: Glacial till.
4. Lacustrine soils. : Soils deposited in lake beds such as Lacustrine
silts and clays.
5. Marine Soils: Soils deposited in sea beds such as marine silt and clay.
 Glacial soil

Aeolian soil Marine soil

 Broad classification of soils

Broad classification of soils may be:

1. Coarse-grained soils, with average grain-size greater than 0.075
mm, e.g., gravels and sands.
2. Fine-grained soils, with average grain-size less than 0.075 mm,
e.g., silts and clays.
 These exhibit different properties and behaviour but certain general
conclusions are possible even with this categorisation. For
example, fine-grained soils exhibit the property of ‘cohesion’—
bonding caused by inter-molecular attraction while coarse-grained
soils do not.
 Thus, the former may be said to be cohesive and the latter non-
cohesive or cohesionless.
Some commonly used soils

Bentonite: Decomposed volcanic ash containing high percentage

of clay mineral such as montmorillonite. It exhibits high degree
of shrinkage and swelling.
Black Cotton Soil: Black soil containing high percentage of
montmorillonite and colloidal material exhibits high shrinkage
and swelling.
Glacial Till or Boulder Clay: Glacial clay containing all sizes of
rocks fragments from boulders down to clay materials.
Laterite Soils: Deep brown soil of cellular structure, easy to
excavate but gets hardened on exposure to air owing to the
formation of hydrated iron oxides.
Loam: It is a mixture of silt, sand and clay size particles in equal
proportions.
Moorum: Gravel mixed with red clay.
Top-Soil: Surface material which supports plant life.
Soil Map of India
1.Black cotton Soils: Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh,
Karnataka, parts of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. On account
of high swelling and shrinkage potential these are difficult soils to
deal with in foundation design.
2.Marine Soils: Occurring in a narrow belt all along the coast, in
Runn of Kutch. It possess low strength and high compressibility.
3.Desert Soils: Occurring in Rajasthan. These are wind blown
deposits and are uniformly graded.
4.Alluvial Soils: Occurring in Indo-Gangetic Plain north of
Vindhyachal Ranges.
5.Laterite Soils: Occurring in Kerala, South Maharashtra,
Karnataka, Orissa and West Bengal.
SOIL PARTICLE SIZE AND SHAPE

0.0005
0.075
SOIL PARTICLE SIZE AND SHAPE

The particles of clay are flaky or plate shaped. The nature of clayey soil is better
understood by looking at microscopic aspect or clay-minerology.
 A Clay Particle

Plate-like or Flaky Shape

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CLAY MINEROLOGY
Composition and Structure of Clay Minerals

Clay minerals are complex silicates of aluminum, magnesium, and

iron. Two basic crystalline units form the clay minerals: (1) a silicon-
oxygen tetrahedron, and (2) an aluminum or magnesium octahedron.
CLAY MINEROLOGY
Composition and Structure of Clay Minerals
CLAY MINEROLOGY
Composition and Structure of Clay Minerals
CLAY MINEROLOGY
Formation of Clay Minerals
The combination of sheets of silica and gibbsite in different arrangements
and conditions lead to the formation of different clay minerals.
Kaolinite is the most important clay mineral belonging to this type Other
common clay mineral that fall into this category are serpentine and
halloysite.
CLAY MINEROLOGY
Clay mineral with three-layer sheets
The most common clay mineral with three-layer sheets are illite and
montromorillonite (A three-layer sheet consists of an octahedral sheet in
the middle with one silica sheet at the top and one at the bottom. Repeated
layers of these sheets form the clay minerals.
33
 Definition
Specific surface  surface / volume
Specific surface  surface / mass Preferred
Surface related force Surface related forces: van der
Gravational force Waals forces, capillary forces, etc.

Example:
1 11 cm cube,   2.65g / cm3
6 1cm 2 4 2
Ss   2.3  10  m /g
3
1 cm  2.65 g / cm 3 Ss is inversely
1 11m cube,   2.65g / cm3 proportional to
the particle size
6 1m 2 2
Ss  3 3
 2.3  m /g
1m  2.65 g / cm

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 Adsorbed Water
 A thin layer of water tightly held to particle; like a skin
 1-4 molecules of water (1 nm) thick
 more viscous than free water
adsorbed water
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
35
 Clay Particle in Water

adsorbed water

- - 1nm
- -
50 nm
- -
- - free water
- -
- -
- -
double layer
water

36
CLAY MINEROLOGY
Adsorbed Water
The clay particles carry a net negative charge on their surface. In
nature every soil particle is surrounded by water. Since the centers of
positive and negative charges of water molecules do not coincide, the
molecules behave like dipoles.
Adsorbed Water

The negative charge on the surface of the soil particle,

therefore, attracts the positive (hydrogen) end of the water
molecules.
The water molecules are arranged in a definite pattern in the
immediate vicinity of the boundary between solid and water.
More than one layer of water molecules sticks on the surface
with considerable force and this attractive force decreases
with the increase in the distance of the water molecule from
the surface.
The electrically attracted water that surrounds the clay
particle is known as the diffused double-layer of water.
The water located within the zone of influence is known as
the adsorbed layer.
Structure in Soil
Structures in Cohesive Soils
When two clay particles in suspension come close to each
other, the tendency for interpenetration of the diffuse double
layers results in repulsion between the particles.
 At the same time, an attractive force exists between the clay
particles that is caused by van der Waals forces and is
independent of the characteristics of water.
 Both repulsive and attractive forces increase with decreasing
distance between the particles, but at different rates.
When the spacing between the particles is very small, the force
of attraction is greater than the force of repulsion.
Structures in Cohesive Soils
 When the clay is initially dispersed in water, the particles repel
one another.
 This repulsion occurs because with larger interparticle spacing,
the forces of repulsion between the particles are greater than
the forces of attraction (van der Waals forces).
 The force of gravity on each particle is negligible.
 Thus, the individual particles may settle very slowly or remain
in suspension, undergoing Brownian motion (a random zigzag
motion of colloidal particles in suspension).
 The sediment formed by the settling of the individual particles
has a dispersed structure, and all particles are oriented more
or less parallel to one another
Most clay particles have a negative electrical charge. Like
charges repel, so clay particles repel one another.
Dispersed Structure
Structures in Cohesive Soils

 If the clay particles initially dispersed in water come close

to one another during random motion in suspension, they
might aggregate into visible flocs with edge-to-face
contact.
 In this instance, the particles are held together by
electrostatic attraction of positively charged edges to
negatively charged faces.
 This aggregation is known as flocculation.
 When the flocs become large, they settle under the force of
gravity. The sediment formed in this manner has a
flocculent structure
Nonsalt flocculation
Structures in Cohesive Soils

 When salt is added to a clay-water suspension that has been

initially dispersed, the ions tend to depress the double layer
around the particles.
 This depression reduces the interparticle repulsion. The
clay particles are attracted to one another to form flocs and
settle.

 In flocculent sediment structures of the salt type, the

particle orientation approaches a large degree of
parallelism, which is due to van der Waals forces.
A cation is a positively charged molecule. Common soil cations
include sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), magnesium (Mg2+), and
calcium (Ca2+). Cations can make clay particles stick together
(flocculate).
Salt flocculation
Flocculated clay
Thin adsorbed water layer
Negative faces bond with positive edges
Card house structure

Rigid configuration
Apparent larger particles
Better engineering properties
Dispersed structure
Thick adsorbed water layer
Negative faces repel.
Clay plate stack parallel to each other

Large variation in water content (high PI)

Large shrink / swell capacity
Poor engineering properties
 

Properties
Characteristic Flocculated Dispersed

Origin Marine deposition Fresh water

deposition
Stiffness high low

Swell potential low high

Strength high low

Remoulding high low

sensitivity
Erosion potential low high

Hydraulic conductivity high low

Structures in Cohesionless Soil
 The structures generally encountered in cohesionless soils
can be divided into two major categories: single grained
and honeycombed.
 In single-grained structures, soil particles are in stable
positions, with each particle in contact with the
surrounding ones.
 The shape and size distribution of the soil particles and
their relative positions influence the denseness of packing;
thus, a wide range of void ratios is possible.
Single-grained structure: (a) loose; (b) dense
Structures in Cohesionless Soil

 In the honeycombed structure, relatively fine sand and silt

form small arches with chains of particles.
 Soils that exhibit a honeycombed structure have large void
ratios, and they can carry an ordinary static load.
 However, under a heavy load or when subjected to shock
loading, the structure breaks down, which results in a large
amount of settlement.
Honeycombed structure
56
 Scanning Electron Microscope
 common technique to see clay particles
 qualitative

plate-like
structure

57
 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD)

 to identify the molecular structure and minerals present

Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA)

 to identify the minerals present

58
 Casagrande’s PI-LL Chart

60
U-line
50
montmorillonite illite A-line
Plasticity Index

40

30
kaolinite
20
halloysite
10

0
chlorite
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Liquid Limit

59
 Atterberg Limit of Clay Minerals
Na-montmorillonite
•Thicker double layer

•LL=710

Ca-montmorillonite
•Thinner double layer

•LL=510

The thickness of double

layer increases with
decreasing cation valence.

Lambe and Whitman, 1979

60
 Summary - Clays

Clay particles are like plates or needles. They are

negatively charged.

 Clays are plastic; Silts, sands and gravels are non-plastic.

 Clays exhibit high dry strength and low dilatancy.

61
 Summary - Montmorillonite

 Montmorillonites have very high specific surface,

cation exchange capacity, and affinity to water. They
form reactive clays.

Montmorillonites have very high liquid limit (100+),

plasticity index and activity (1-7).

Bentonite (a form of Montmorillonite) is frequently

used as drilling mud.
62