5.

Nervous System
 The nervous tissue basically an integrated
communications network distributed
throughout the entire body.
The nervous tissue comprises
1. Neuron: the main component, neuron,
specialized to detect stimuli, respond
quickly, and transmits coded
information rapidly to other cells
2. Neuroglia (glial cells): provide
support and protection to neurons.
The entire nervous system is a functional cohesive unit; however, it
may be structural divided in to:
1. Central nervous system.
2. peripheral nervous system.
1. CNS : -brain and spinal cord,
 based on its appearance,
 white matter (dense accumulation of nerve fibers
individually enveloped by myelin (a white lipoprotein) and
 grey matter rich in cell perikarya (cell bodies) and lacks

dense accumulation of myelin.

2. PNS -spinal and cranial nerves including associated nerve roots
and ganglia.
 Nerve: is a collection of nerve fibers organized in to one or more
fascicle by CT
 Neurons
Neurons, nerve cells, are specialized cells that
respond to changes in excitability difference in
electrical gradient between the internal and
external environment of cell membrane/
plasmalemma.
modification of electrical gradient at the region
where receive signal and spread through the
entire cell by eliciting nerve impulse that
consequently spread to the other neurons and
other tissues.
The stablishment of difference in concentration
of ions inside and out side the cell membrane is
called resting membrane potential. At resting
potential Na+ and Cl- higher outside and K+
inside.
When there is an appropriate stimuli there will
be exchange of Na+ to the inside and K+ to the
outside for short time and resulting in action
potential.
Excitation is depolarization of the plasma lemma
which occurs as the result of ion flow through
protein channels embedded in the plasma
A neuron has distinct regions depending on its
specific function of the part:
Dendritic zone: a zone that consists of Cell
body (perikaryon), which nurture the cell, and
the dendrites, where excitation is initially
received.
Axon: which conducts excitation between
dendritic and telodendritic zones and it is an
elongated cylinder with few branches
Telodendritic zone (axon’s terminations):
where excitation is transmitted to another cell. It
is also branched has localized expansions
(terminal bulbs) for storage and release of
 Cell body
 The control center of the neuron
 The portion of the cell body that gives rise to the axon is called the ax
 The cytoplasm within the perikaryon, contains Nissl bodies, mitochondria
(synthesize neurotransmitters), lysosomes, a Golgi complex, and cytoskeleton
that consist of dense mesh of microtubules and neurofiberlis).
 Nissl bodies are unique to neurons and a helful clue to identify them in tissue
sections with mixed cell types.
 In neuronal injury (eg Transaction of axon), the cell body swells, the nucleus
shifts to eccentric position and nissl substance disappears (chromatolysis). This
response is called axon reaction on hillock.
 Mature neurons lack centroiles and apparently undergo no further mitosis after
adolescence, but they are longived.
Dendrites

Are highly branched processes of multipolar neurons, and the

main trunk has organelle content similar of the cell body.

Cytologically dendritis are nearly similar to cell bodies

having nissl bodies, mitochondria, neurofilaments, and

neurotubules except Golgi apparatus.

Axon

Axon is typically a long cylindrical process with few, if any,

branches along its course (collateral branches) and multiple

terminal branches telodendritic zone (axon’s teriminals).
The axons originate from axon hillock of the cell body. The
hillock is a conical region devoid of nissl substance, it
features neurofilameus and grouped microtubules that
proceed the axon.
 Axoplasma (cytoplasm of axon) contain mitochondria, SER,
and actin filaments that form the subaxolemma network
within the axolema (cell membrane of axon).
Some axons are myelinated. Myelin begins distal to the
initial segment and is arranged in a series of segments, called
internodes, bound by gaps called nodes of raniver. When
present, collateral branches of myelinated axons originate at
nodes.
Telodendritic branches
 have preterminal and terminal bulbs. Each bulb is an
expression that contains synaptic vesicles and synapses on
other neurons or effect tor organs
Synapses
Synapses are specialized areas of contact between
neurons where one neuron is able to influence the
excitability of another neuron.
Morphologically, a synapse involves a
 pre-synaptic element (Posses specific receptors for the
transmission of impulse),
 synaptic cleft (contain filamentous protein mater at that
binds together presynaptic and postsynaptic membrane)
and
 post synaptic elements (characterized by increased
plasmalemmal density).
 Neuortransmitors
Neurotransimitors consists of a variety of
signaling molecules that can act directly receptor
protein associated with ion channels that are
processed and respond within short period of
time not longer than one /1msec. some signaling
molecules directly associated with non ion
channels such as G-protein, receptor kinase
which activates seconday messengers by
processing for alonger time interval up to several
minutes and are called neuromodulators.
There are about 100 neurotrnsmitors and
neuromodulators have been identified. These
signaling molecules are grouped in to three groups:
1. Gases: Consisting of carbon monoxide (CO) and nitric
oxide (NO)
2. Small signaling molecules: grouped in to
 Aminoacids- Gamma aminobutryic acid (GABA), glutamate,
glycine and aspartate
 Acetyle choline-
 Biogenic amines- cathecholamines (epinephrine, nor
epinephrine and dopamine) and serotonin
3. Neuropeptide- many used as neuromodulators such as
opoids, gastrointestinal peptides and different hormones
 Morphological classification of neurons
Classified according to the size, number and shape of
their process extending from the cell bodies as follows:
Unipolar (pseudounipolar) neurons have a single process (axon)
 They carry signal to the spinal cord
 The neurons have cell bodies in spinal and cranial sensory ganglia,

Bipolar neurons: Have two process (one dendrite and one

axon)
 These are very rare and have a limited distribution in the body. They are
present in special sensory structures including the retina, olfactory
epithelium, and vestibular and cochear nerves.
Multiple neurons: Posses several processes (several dendrietes
and a single axon).
 Nearly all the billion of neurons comprising the CNs are multipular
neurosn can classified further into long axon (type I neuron) and these
with short axons (type II neurons)
Neuroglia (Gliocytes/ Glial cells)
Get their name from the Greek word for “glue” that bind
together and provide support. Neurons can’t exist or develop
without neuroglia. There are 6 kinds of neuronglia, each with
a unique function
Oligo dendricytes (oligodendroglia):
The cells have relatively shorter processes that reach out to a
nerve fiber and spirals around it. cell that mylinated axons
and insulate the axon so that speeds up signal conduction.
Astrocytes (AStroglia):
The largest neuroglia with long process may be branching &
most abundant
 Cover the brain/ From supportive frame work
 Contribute to the blood brain barrier ( participation)
 Nourish neurons (glucose – lactate)
Ependyma cells:
resemble cuboidal epithelium that lines the internal
cavities (ventricles) of the brain and spinal cord. Secrete and
circulate CSF (have patches of cilia on their aplical surface).
Microglia:
are small macrophages that develop from monocytes.
Phagosize dead nervous tissues, microorganisms and other
foreign materials
Schwan cells:
Envelop nerve fibers of PNS.
 Winds repeatedly around a nerve fiber and produces a myelin
sheath. Aid in the regeneration of damaged fibers
Satellite cells: Surround the neuron cell bodies in the ganglia
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
It consists of cranial and spinal nerves including all
roots, distal branches, and ganglia.
A nerve is a bundle of nerve fibers wrapped in fibrous
connective tissue. Individual fibers are surrounded by
a thin CT layer known as Endoneurium.
 Fibers are grouped in bundles (fasciled), which are
also surrounded by a CT called perineurium.
The multiple fascicles of a nerve are bound together
by epineurium.
 Ganglia
Ganglia are groups of nerve cell bodies (perikarya) outside CNS.
Two types of nerve ganglia can be distinguished based on their
morphology and function.
Spinal ganglia (Dorsal root ganglia)
Spinal ganglia are found in the dorsal roots of spinal nerves and
carry afferent sensory impulse. The ganglia are surrounded by a
fairly thick CT capsule.
The perikarya belong to unipolar neurons.
The cell bodies have a purely tropic function aren’t involved with the
nerve transmission
Autonomic ganglia
Autonomic ganglia are associated with nerves of the autonomic
nervous system. In many cases the ganglia are seen in the walls of
organs (intramural and lack a capsule).
They differ from spinal ganglia
the neurons are multipolar.
 Central nervous system (CNS)
It consists of the brain and spinal cord. The nerve cell bodies
(perikarya) of the CNS are found in group (“nuclei”). Brain
consists of the brain stem, cerebelium, and acerebrum.
When CNS is sliced one can identify white matter and grey
matter.
White matter lacks perikarya, but has many processes of
neurons. The white appearance is the result of the myelin
that envelops many of the neuronal process. The neuroglia
are also found in the white matter and the nuclei seen in
white matter belong to the neuroglia.
Gray matter contains perikarya, neuroglia and complicated
network of process (axons, telodendrites, and glial process).
Gray matter in the cerebrum and cerebellum is called cortex.
 Cerebellar cortex
Cerebellar surface, which features folia (narrow ridges) separated
by sulci proves is coated by cortex. White matter is deep to the
cortex.
The cerebellar cortex neurons are involved in directing activities
associated with vestibulation (balance), skeletal coordination and
muscle tone. The cortex is divided in to three layers (from
superficial to deep).
 Molecular layer consists of extensive neuropils
 Piriform cell layer: a single layer of large cell bodies located at the
interface of the molecular and granule cell layer. The piriform
(purkinje’s) cells send axon in to the white matter to synapse with
neurons of the cerebellar nucle. Basket cell is also located in this layer.
 Granule cell layer feauters densely packed granule cells small neurons
with heterochromatic nuclei
Spinal cord
Spinal cord can be divided into segments based
on the location transverse section of the spinal
cord reveal a central canal surrounded by H-
shaped profile of gray matter.
 Spinal cord bilaterally divided by ventral median
fissure and dorsal median septum spinal gray
matter may be divided into nucle which generally
aren’t distinct.
Nerves existing in the spinal cord (efferent
nerves) located ventrally whereas afferent nerves
(nerves entering SC) are seen dorsally.
The connective tissue lining the central nervous
system internal to the skull and vertebral columns
is called meninges. Meninges consists o f three
fibrous layers
1. Duramatter- the outer most layer. Two layers:
Within the vertebral column the dura matter is
separated from the periosteum of the vertebrae by
an epidural space, which is composed of
network of blood vessels.
2. Arrachinoid –comprises an external membrane
of connective tissue and direct contact with dura
matter and trabeculae extending to pia matter
subdural space- loosely arranged interface
between duramatter and arachnoid which is
site of fluid space such as blood during injury.
Subarrachdonic space- the space between
the trabeculae which contains Cerebrospinal
fluidand blood vessels that
3. pia matter –lies adjacent to nervous tissue
 Cerebrospinal fluid and Blood brain barrier
Cerebrospinal fluid
It is a crear watery fluid resembles plasma but,
less protein
Produced by discrete vascular beds known as
chorid plexi within the ventricles of the brain
Blood brain barrier
is selective barrier made up of endothelial cells
forming tight junction between the blood
vessels/ capillaries and the cerebrospinal fluid.
Different carrier proteins facilitate the transport
of molecules