UNIT 2: DIGITAL MAPPING

2.1 MAP CONCEPT: MAP ELEMENTS, MAP LAYERS, MAP SCALES AND
REPRESENTATION
2.2 MAP PROJECTION: COORDINATES SYSTEM AND PROJECTION SYSTEM
 MAP CONCEPT:

Maps are the marks on a paper that stands for definable things on the
earth's surface. A representation usually on a flat surface, of the whole or
a part of an area. It is any concrete or abstract image of the distributions
and features that occur on or near the surface of the earth or other
celestial bodies.
 MAP CONCEPT

The term 'map', however, in non-geography uses does not necessarily refer to a
representation but to how things are arranged or how they relate to one other.
For whatever reason, at geographic scales, 'map' means a representation of the
earth and not earth's patterns themselves and it usually refers to a graphic
representation, although the term 'map' can be used more broadly to refer to any
representation of geographic space.
To reach a graphic representation, there must be a mental conception (or
representation) of the world. It determines how we map, and maps in turn
influence the mental representation.
 MAP DESIGN OBJECTIVES
 FULFILL INTENDED PURPOSE
 SHARE INFORMATION
 HIGHLIGHT RELATIONSHIPS
 ILLUSTRATE RESULTS
 COMMUNICATING WITH MAPS

Determine what the purpose of the map is

Who is the intended audience
What features are needed
What is the best way to symbolize the map
COMMUNICATING WITH MAPS
 FACTORS CONTROLLING CARTOGRAPHIC DESIGN

• Map objective: will the map be in a book, hang on a wall, be folded or flat,
Black and white or color, etc.?
• Audience: is the audience a group of scientist or the general public.
• Scale: controls how much detail can be on the map.
• Technical limits: minimum line width, limited color palette, lack of color
• Mode of use: will the map be used in the field? Place on a wall? Used while
Driving?
 MAP RESOLUTION:

It refers to how accurately the location and shape of the map features can be depicted for a given map
scale. In large-scale maps the resolution is greater because the reduction factors used to put the real-
world features on a map is less.
As a map scale decreases, features are simplified, smoothed or not represented at all. Features such as
roads and streams must be represented as lines not areas. Millions of maps are produced and used
annually throughout the world by scientists, scholars, governments, and business to meet environmental,
economic, political, and social needs.
 MAPS GAIN VALUE IN THREE WAYS:
As a way of recording and storing information:
Governments, business, and society as large must store large quantities of information about the
environment and the location of natural resources, capital assess, and people.

AS A MEAN OF ANALYZING DISTRIBUTIONS AND SPATIAL PATTERNS:

Maps let us recognize spatial distribution and relationships and make it possible for us to visualize and
hence conceptualize patterns and processes that operate through space.

AS A METHOD OF PRESENTING INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION FINDINGS:

Maps allow us to convey information and findings that are difficult to express verbally.
 VIRTUAL MAPS VS REAL MAPS

Real map: A hard copy or conventional map.

Virtual map: information that can be converted into a real map,

i.e. Information on a Computer screen, mental images, field information, notes, and remote sensing
information.
 MAP ELEMENTS:

There are several key elements that should be included each time a map is created in order to aid the
viewer in understanding the communications of that map and to document the source of the
geographic information used.
MAP ELEMENTS
 MAP ELEMENTS
Title and subtitle:
 Usually draws attention by virtue of its dominant size.
 Serves to focus attention on the primary content of the map.
 It should be an answer to "what, where and when".
Tips: never underline a title or a subtitle and never put a colon after a title
 MAP ELEMENTS
Legend:
 The principal reference to the map symbols; subordinated to the title.
 However, this is still a key element for map reading; describing all unknown or unique map symbols
used.

Tips: only the word "legend" should be written on your map not like "map legend" , or “Nepal legend"
etc.
 MAP ELEMENTS
Map scale:
It provides the reader with important information regarding linear relations on the map.
A scale can be numerical for example 1:50000 or graphical.
Tips: the dimension and thickness of a graphical scale has to be adapted to the map content
 MAP ELEMENTS
Credits:
 Can include the map source, the author, indication of the reliability of accuracy of the map, dates,
or other explanatory materials.
Tips: credits should always be written smallest as possible but
nevertheless readable and be placed in a box without a frame.
Mapped areas: objects, land, water and other geographical features important to the purpose of the
map.
 MAP ELEMENTS
Map symbols: wide variety of forms and functions; the most important element of the map, along with the geographic
areas rendered.

Place name and labeling:

 The chief means of communicating with maps; serve to orient the reader on the map and provide important
information regarding its purpose.
Tips: use the same font for the map frame, the map layout, and the map content.
 MAP ELEMENTS
 North arrow: according to the rules, each map should have a north arrow but if the map is north
oriented, or if the geographical co-ordinate are already on the map the north arrow can be omitted.
Tips: the north arrow must be well readable, but not be too dominant on the map.
 MAP ELEMENTS
Border and neatlines: Both optional; borders can serve to restrain eye movements. Neatlines are
finer than borders, drawn inside them and often intra- parallelism, rendered as part of the graticule;
used mostly for decoration.
 MAP ELEMENTS
Graticule:
Often omitted in maps today; should be included if the location information is crucial to the map
purpose.
For example: into topographical maps
 MAP LAYERS
A map layer is GIS database containing groups of point, line or area
(polygon) features representing a particular class or type of real-world
entities such as customers, streets, or postal codes.
A layer contains both the visual representation of each feature and a link
from the feature to its database attributes. Maps in a geographic
information system are made by combining multiple layers.
 map layers

FIG: COMBINE A POINT LAYER OF LANDMARKS, A LINE LAYER OF STREETS, AND AN AREA LAYER OF ZIP
CODES TO CREATE THE GIS MAP SHOWN ON THE RIGHT
 MAP LAYERS
 Data on different themes are stored in separate layers.
 As each layer is geo-referenced, layers from different sources can easily be integrated using
location.
 This can be used to build up complex models of the real world from widely disparate sources.
MAP LAYERS
 MAP SCALE AND REPRESENTATION:
Naturally it is impossible for real world features to be drawn on the map as large as their true size.
Therefore in order to represent the real world, maps are made to a specific scale.
Map scale is defined as the ratio of the distance between two points on the map to the corresponding distance on
the ground. Maps come in a variety of scales.
Large scale maps cover a small area with great detail and accuracy, while small scale maps cover a large area
in less detail.
Map scale including bar, verbal and fractional scales as shown in this image, map scales can be expressed as a
verbal statement, as a fraction or ratio and finally as a graphic or bar scale.
Such scale expressions can be used to find the ground distance between any features from conversion of the
corresponding map distance measurement.
MAP SCALE AND REPRESENTATION:
Verbal scale:
"1 centimeter on the map represents 500m on the ground" is a verbal scale. Clearly here a distance of 1cm on
the map corresponds to 500m on the earth's surface.
So if you plan a route with a total distance of 22cm on the map, that would imply that you'll be traveling
(22cm x 500m) / 1cm = 11000m or 11km on the ground.

Representative fraction (rf) - fractional scale - ratio scale:

1:50000 represents the map scale as a mathematical ratio or fraction, thus the name ratio scale or fractional
scale. 1:50000 can be shown as 1/50000 as well.
 MAP SCALE AND REPRESENTATION:

Here such a scale means that one unit of measurement on the map is equal to 50000 of the same unit on the
ground. Such a unit can be anything such as centimeter, meter, feet, inches, your finger length, half a length of a
pencil, etc. Also we can say that any distance on the map is 1/50000 of its true value on the ground.

Therefore 1cm on the map is equal to 50000cm on the ground,

I.E. 1cm on the map is equal to (50000cm x 1m) /100cm
= 500m or 0.5km on the ground.
Again a 22cm route on the map can be calculated to be equal 22 x 50000cm
= 1100000cm on the ground or (1100000cm x 1m) / 100cm
= 11000m.
 2.2 MAP PROJECTION: COORDINATES SYSTEM AND PROJECTION
SYSTEM

Map projections are attempts to portray the surface of the earth or a portion of the earth on a flat surface.
Some distortions of conformality, distance, direction, scale, and area always result from this process.
Some projections minimize distortions in some of these properties at the expense of maximizing errors in others.
Some projection are attempts to only moderately distort all of these properties.
We need to choose a projection that will MINIMIZE distortion in our area and be best suited for our application
1. Maps are flat but they represent curved surfaces. Transforming 3D space onto a 2D map is called a projection.
2. Projections are mathematical expressions which convert data from a geographic
Location (latitude, longitude) on a sphere or spheroid to a representative location on a flat surface.
3. Projection always causes distortion in one or more ways: shape, area, distance, direction.
4. Therefore, one must choose which characteristic to be accurate at the expense of the others.
 2.2 MAP PROJECTION: COORDINATES SYSTEM AND PROJECTION
SYSTEM
Conformality: when the scale of a map at any point on the map is the same in any direction, the projection is conformal. Meridians
(lines of longitude) and parallels (lines of latitude) intersect at right angles. Shape is preserved locally on conformal maps.

Distance: a map is equidistant when it portrays distances from the center of the projection to any other place on the map.

Direction: a map preserves direction when azimuths (angles from a point on a line to another point) are portrayed correctly in all
directions.

Scale: scale is the relationship between a distance portrayed on a map and the same distance on the earth.

Area: when a map portrays areas over the entire map so that all mapped areas have the same proportional relationship to the
areas on the earth that they represent, the map is an equal-area map.
CLASSIFICATION OF MAP PROJECTIONS:

The map projection can be onto a flat surface or a surface that can be made flat by cutting, such as
a cylinder or a cone. If the globe, after scaling, cuts the surface, the Projection is called secant.
Lines where the cuts take place or where the surface touches the globe have no projection distortion.
Map projections fall into three general classes:
CLASSIFICATION OF MAP PROJECTIONS:

• 1. Cylindrical Projection:
It is assumed to circumscribe a transparent globe (marked with meridians and parallels) so that
the cylinder touches the equator throughout its circumference. Assuming that a light bulb is
placed at the center of the globe, the graticule of the globe is projected on to the cylinder. By
cutting open the cylinder along a meridian and unfolding it, a rectangles shaped cylindrical
projection is obtained. Cylindrical are true at the equator and distortion increases toward the
poles.
CYLINDRICAL PROJECTION:
CONICAL PROJECTION:

• A cone is placed over the globe in such a way that the apex of the cone is exactly over the
polar axis. A cone must touch the globe along a parallel of latitude, known as the standard
parallel, which can be selected by the cartographer. Along this standard parallel, scale is correct
and distortion is the least. When the cone is cut open along a meridian and laid flat, a fan
shaped map is produced, with meridians as straight lines radiating from the vertex at equals
angles, while parallels are arcs of circles, all drawn using the vertex as the center.
CONICAL PROJECTION:
PLANAR ( AZIMUTHAL) PROJECTION:

A plane is placed so that it touches the globe at the north or South Pole. This can be conceived as the cone
becoming increasingly flattened until its vertex reaches the limit of 1800. The projection resulting is better
known as the polar Azimuthal projection. It is circular in shape with meridians projected as straight line
radiating from the center of the circle, which is the pole.
COORDINATE SYSTEM:

A coordinate system is a standardized method for assigning codes to locations so that locations can be
found using the codes alone.

Standardized coordinate systems use absolute locations. A map captured in the units of the paper sheet on which it
is printed is based on relative locations or map millimeters.
COORDINATE SYSTEM:

Some standard coordinate systems used are:

• Geographic coordinates
• lat-long, geodetic lat long, earth centered earth fixed XYZ
• Universal transverse Mercator (UTM) system
• Military grid
• State plane coordinate system
To compare or edge-match maps in a GIS, both maps must be in the same coordinate system else, the
edges do not match and it gives us false information.
COORDINATE SYSTEM:

Latitude, longitude, height:

The most commonly used coordinate system today is the latitude, longitude and
height system.
The prime meridian and the equator are the reference planes used to define
latitude and longitude. Geographic coordinates are the earth's latitude and
longitude system, ranging from 90 degrees south to 90 degrees north in latitude
and 80 degrees west to 180 degrees east in longitude.
• A line with a constant latitude running east to west is called a parallel.
• A line with constant longitude running from the north pole to the south pole is called a meridian.
• The zero-longitude meridian is called the prime meridian and passes through Greenwich, England.
A grid of parallels and meridians shown as lines on a map is called a graticule.
• The geodetic latitude of a point is the angle from the equatorial plane to the vertical direction of a line
normal to the reference ellipsoid.
• The geodetic longitude of a point is the angle between a reference plane and a plane passing through the
point, both planes being perpendicular to the equatorial plane.
COORDINATE SYSTEM:
UNIVERSAL TRANSVERSE MERCATOR (UTM):
UTM is the most prevalent system used for mapping and other work. UTM zone numbers designate 6
degree longitudinal strips (60 vertical zones) extending from 80 degree south latitude to 84 degrees
north latitude. Zone numbers start from the 180th meridian in an eastward direction
Military grid reference system (MGRS): MGRS is an extension of the UTM system. UTM zone number and zone character are
used to identify an area 6 degree in east-west extent and 8 degrees in north-south extent. UTM zone number and designator are
followed by 100km square easting and northing identifiers. The system uses a set of alphabetic characters for the 100km grid
squares starting at the 180 degree meridian the characters A to Z (omitting I and O) are used for 18 degrees before starting over.
From the equator north the character A to V (omitting I and O) are used for 100km squares, repeating every 2000km. The reverse
sequence (from V to A) is used for southern hemisphere.
World geographic reference system (GEOREF): The world geographic reference system is used for aircraft navigation.
GEOREF is based on latitude and longitude. The globe is divided into twelve bands of latitude and twenty four zones of longitude,
each 15 degrees in extent.
State plane coordinate system (spcs):
In the US, the state plane system was developed in the 1930s and was based on the north American datum 1927.

State plane systems were developed in order to provide local reference systems that were tied to a national datum.

Some smaller states use a single state plane zone.

Larger states are divided into several zones.

State plane zone boundaries often follow country boundaries.

Lambert conformal conic projections are used for rectangular zones with a larger east- west than north-south
extent.

Transverse Mercator projections are used to define zones with a larger north-south extent.