Introduction to

Ethics
Basic Concepts
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 Definition of Ethics
Ethics has been defined as the philosophical science dealing with the morality of
human acts. It provides the principles on the human acts.
Ethics is the normative science of conduct of human beings living in societies- the
science, which judges this conduct to be right and wrong, to be good or bad.
Ethics, also called moral philosophy, the discipline concerned with what is morally
good and bad and morally right and wrong.
Etymologically, there is no difference between ethics and morality. Morality come
from the Latin word mos or moris, which also means “customs”. For this reason
Ethics is called moral philosophy.
 Definition of Ethics
Difference between ethics and morality, as stated by Babor (2003). Ethics provides
principles on the morality of human acts; it provides man with the theoretical
knowledge of the morality of human acts.
Ethics, therefore, does not guarantee that man will be moral. He can only be moral
if he applies ethics. In the other words, ethics provides the theory or principles of
right and wrong or goodness and badness while morality actualizes the theory.
Morality is nothing else but the doing of ethics.
Etymologically, ethics is derived from the Greek word ethicos, or that which
pertains to ethos the English translation of which is “custom” or “character.”
Ethics deals with such questions at all levels. Its subject consists of the
fundamental issues of practical decision making.
 Division of Ethics
General Ethics presents truths about human acts, and from these truths deduce the
general principles of morality. General ethics is applied to the individual in
relation to himself, to God and to his fellow me.
Special Ethics is applied ethics. It applies the principles of general ethics in
different departments of human activity, individual and social. It includes man
relations within the family, in the state and in the world (International ethics)
 Importance of Ethics
1. Ethics means living in the proper way and it is in the development of a good
moral character and virtues that man finds perfection and understand his
purpose of existence.
2. Everybody aims to have peace and harmony among all people, which is indeed
the common interest of the people and the government. The first way to the
moral development of the people id to educate them.
Confucius laid great emphasis on cultivation of character, purity of heart and
conduct. He exhorted to the people to have a good character first, which is
priceless jewel and which is best of all virtues.
According to Immanuel Kant, “Man is a rational being.” every action of man must
be in accordance with laws of reason that makes man a moral agent. It is a duty of
man to live a moral life.
 Human Act & Act of Man
By lexicon, the two phrases are very close but going deeper into their matters and
functions, one finds the different from each other.
Man is a rational being and that man is to act in accordance with the laws of
nature. “To live in accordance with the laws of nature he has to act in accordance
with the law of nature”, according to Immanuel Kant. Man has to live a moral life,
it is important; therefor, to know what these acts are that are proper to man.
It is normal for a brute to do some brutish act or an evil being to do an evil act. On
the contrary, man who is endowed with reason is not normal for him to do an act
that is not proper to him as an agent of reason. An act that is not proper to man as
a rational being is called Act of Man and not Human Act.
 Human Act & Act of Man
Man is an animal. That is there are actions and activities of man in common with
other forms of animals. Such actions are eating, hearing, tasting, smelling, etc.
These are called Acts of Man.
On the other hand, of all the other forms of animals man alone is endowed with
rationality. Man alone has the capacity to think and to decide the actions proper to
him as a rational being. Human Acts are actions or activities that emanate from the
rationality of man.
Examples of Human Acts are; to vote a candidate, to decide, to teach, to love, to
hate, to attend a party, to read, study, etc.
 Elements of Human Act
Not all acts are labeled human. To make an act human, it must contain the
following elements:
1. Knowledge. The agent of the act or the actor knows what he is acting. He
knows its results, good or ban. The act, in other words, is done deliberately.
2. Freedom. The person who does the action is not pressured to do or not to do
the action. He is free from all external forces beyond his control.
3. Voluntaries. The agent does not the act out of his own decision and will. He
does not act because he decides to do it. It emanates from his heart and reason.
The absence of one of these elements makes an act not human. As a result, since
the action id done freely, knowingly and voluntarily, mas is responsible for such
an act.
 Classification of Human Acts
There are two classification of Human Acts, Elicited Act and Commanded Act. An
act is classified as “elicited” if it is begins and ends in the will without bodily
involvement. While an act is classified “commanded” if it requires both mind and
body. It is shortly called mind-body act.
According to Paul Glenn, there are six elicited acts:
1. Wish. Is defined as a desire, or a longing for an object impossible or possible
to realize.
2. Intention. This is purpose or aim, a determination to act in a certain way,
attainable or not but not obligatory.
3. Consent. The affirmation of the will to go on the intention of the agent.
4. Election. Agent chooses a way to carry out his intention.
5. Use. The mind uses the means.
6. Fruition. A result of the object being desired. The fruition is enjoyment.
 Classification of Human Acts
Commanded Acts. These are the acts that involve body and mind. As classified,
there are three kinds:
1. Internal Acts. At first it seems that it has no difference with the elicited acts
because it is also solely in the mind of the agent. However, it requires the body
to complete it.
2. External Act. These are the acts done by the body under the direction of the
will. They become Human Act because they are done under the command of
the will.
3. Mixed. This is a combination of the internal and external acts as the word
suggests.
 Determinants of Morality
According to St. Thomas Aquinas a thing is good with the perfection
of its parts and evil from any defect. In other words, you can only say that the
thing is good if all its essential elements are presents and functioning well. Any
little defect or wrong to a thing you can no longer say, it is good.
Therefore, in the same manner, as a human act, to be morally acceptable, it
must be morally perfect in all its aspects. Thus the determinants of
morality are employed as the basis for judging whether an act is good or
evil, moral or immoral.
The following are three determinants of the morality of human acts, namely; 1.
The end of the act itself, 2. The end of the doer, and 3.The circumstances of the
act.
 Determinants of Morality
1. The Act itself. The end of the act is the natural termination or completion of an
act. And it determines whether an act is intrinsically good or evil and
extrinsically good or evil.
An intrinsic good act is an act that is consistent with the natural tendencies of
human nature.
An intrinsic evil act is an act which is contrary to reason. These are human actions
as being contrary to the natural law.
Extrinsic evil acts are actions that are neutral to the norm of morality. These
actions are either good or bad, not on account of their nature, but because off
actors or circumstances in concomitant to them.
 Determinants of Morality
2. Purpose. The end of the doer is the purpose or motive which the doer wishes to
accomplish by his action. Thus, without a motive, an act is accidental or
involuntary. A good motive is truthful, prudent (wise), temperate, and just.
“This is the most loving of all in a given situation.”
3. Circumstances. This is the historical elements surrounding the commission of
an act, such as the status of the doer, the place, the time, and the intensity of an
act. These circumstances are hinted by the interrogative pronouns – who, what,
where, with whom, why, how, and when.
 The Modifiers of Human Acts
Modifiers of Human Acts refer to the degree of intensity of the morality of an act.
If put into more layman’s term, modifiers of Human Acts refer to “how bad” or
“how good” the human act is.
Certain factors affect the goodness and badness of a Human Act. These factors are
called “Modifiers of Human Acts” such as ignorance, concupiscence, fear,
violence, and habit. They lessen the responsibility of the agent of the action.
1. Ignorance. As everyone understands it, ignorance is an absence of knowledge.
It is un availability of information about the causes or effects of thing and
actions.
 The Modifiers of Human Acts
Division of Ignorance.
Mans intellect is limited and the area covered by ignorance is so vast. Ignorance is
herewith divided.
 Ignorance of the Law. When one is unaware of the existence of the law or at
least, a particular case compromised under its provision.
 Ignorance of Fact. When the relation of the law but the thing itself or some
circumstance is unknown.
 Ignorance of Reality. When a person is not cognizant that a sanction has been
attached at a particular time. This is especially to be considered when there is a
question of more serious punishment.
 The Modifiers of Human Acts
2. Concupiscence. This is a modifier of Human Act that refers to the bodily
desire of man sometimes called “passion”.
 Antecedent concupiscence. Passion that suddenly flares up without approval of
will or mind.
 Consequent concupiscence. When the will or mind acts in favor of the
antecedent.
3. Fear. This is a disconcerted state of person’s mind dues to the expected danger
that comes anytime.
 Authorities of Ethics, particularly Paul Glenn, have identified two kinds of acts
under the topic of fear; act out of fear and act in fear.
 The Modifiers of Human Acts
4. Violence. This is a force usually physical inflicted upon a person for the
purpose of compelling the said person to amend or act against his will.
5. Habit. This is a repeatable act of a person in comfort and ease. It is an
inclination to do and finish something.
 The Norms of Morality
To speak of ways of acting which, in themselves, are worthy of being chosen, even
before we know it and even without our recognizing it, raises a good question:
“Why is it that some actions are worthy or unworthy of being chosen, and what is
it which gives them that quality and which accounts for that characteristics?” this
question is called the question of an objective norm or standard of morality.
1. Norms are purely internal. Many people today reject any moral norms or
standards which would be based on the existence of values outside of us and
they argue that the only valid norms are purely internal.
2. Norm based on current opinions and customs. There are some who use the
norm that current opinions and customs determine the acceptable mode of
acting or at least rationalize along those lines.
 The Norms of Morality
3. Norm of Expediency. ‘other people regulate their actions in accordance with
what is useful for them at the moment rather than what is objectively right or
wrong.
4. Norm of preference. There are still others who act in accordance with what is
desirable, what one “prefers” doing rather than what is right or wrong.
5. Situation Ethics. To the question “What must I do to act rightly and well?”
there is one answer which we hear more often than any other in our day: “ I
must always do what I feel is right for me. I must not impose my views of
right and wrong on you, and you must not impose your views on me. For after
all, who is to say who is right?”
6. Evaluation. Morality is not a matter of current opinions or actions of the
majority; it is not a matter of what is useful at the moment, of altruism, of
expediency, of feeling.