Critical Short Notes
Critical Short Notes
Critical Short Notes
as indicated by wherefore
because accordingly
for hence
in that we may conclude
may be inferred from entail that
as consequently
given that it follows that
seeing Implies
• If---antecedent-----then---consequent---------
• ------Consequent ------ if -----antecedent------
• E.g. If you study hard, then you will score ‘A’.
• Summary on Conditional Sentences:
Single conditional statements are not arguments
E.g. If iron is dense than mercury, then it will float in
mercury.
A conditional statement may serve as either the
premises or conclusion (or both) of an argument.
E.g. If FDRE does not change its platform, it will not attract new
supporters.
If FDRE doe not attract new supporters, it will lose the next
election.
Therefore, if FDRE does not change its platform; it will lose the
next election
The inferential content of a conditional
statement may be re -expressed to form an
argument.
• E.g. If both Saturn and Uranus have rings,
then the Saturn has rings. The inferential
content of this statement may be re-expressed
to form argument:
• Both Saturn and Uranus have rings.
• Therefore, Saturn has rings.
Cont..
• Conditional statements are especially
important in logic because they express the
relationship between necessary and sufficient
conditions.
C. Inductive generalization:
E.g. I have got 10 out of 10 in the first quiz of logic. Hence, I probably
will score A.
D. Argument from authority:
E.g. According to Dr. Abiy, Ethiopia is growing fast. Hence, the country
is on the right truck of development.
E. Argument based on signs:
E.g. Across the road, I am looking a flag. Hence,
there may be a school around.
F. Argument based on causation:
E.g. The cloud is becoming dark and the
thunder is roaming. So, let us go home quickly,
the rain is inevitable
Summary:
• Mostly, inductive argument proceed from particular to general
and deductive from general to particular.
• However, sometimes deductive arguments may proceed from
particular to general, general to general, and particular to
particular. The same fashion works for inductive arguments.
Example 1: (Deductive from particular to general)
Three is a prime number.
Five is a prime number.
Seven is a prime number.
Therefore, all odd numbers between two and eight are prime
numbers.
Example 2 (inductive from general to particular)
All GC previous awards of BDU were taken by Economics dep’t.
Therefore, the next award will be for economics dep’t.
2.4. Evaluation of Arguments
Argument type Evaluation Criteria
Deductive Valid
Invalid
Sound (Valid Argument + all
true Premises). It is the most
perfect DA
Unsound
Inductive • Strong
• Weak
• Cogent (Strong argument + all
true premises). It is the most
perfect IA.
• Uncogent
Cont..
Valid: is an argument in w/c it is impossible for the
conclusion to be false and the premise is true.
Deductive argument
Case Argument Evaluatio
n
Premise Concl Vali Inva
s usion d lid
1 T(True) T
2 T F __
3 F T
4 F F
Cont..
Case 1: True P + True C (Valid)
E.g. 1:
• All television networks are media companies.
•ASRAT is a television network.
•Therefore, ASRAT is a media company
•This argument is an example of sound argument.
Sound Argument = Valid Argument + All Premises True
Weight
Light Radical energy
Cont..
3. Precise Definition
• Has purpose of reducing vagueness.
• An expression is vague if there are borderline
cases in which it is impossible to tell if the word
applies or does not apply.
• Words such as ‘‘fresh,’’ ‘‘rich,’’ and ‘‘poor’’,
“love” are vague.
• So, there is a need for a law to be applied.
• Example: ‘Poor’ means having an a daily income
of less than $1.2
Cont..
• The terms ‘‘force,’’ ‘‘energy,’’ ‘‘acid,’’
‘‘element’’, ‘‘number’’ ‘‘equality,’’
‘‘contract,’’ and ‘‘agent”, “rich”, “poor”,
etc… requires precise definition.
2. “I’m the best man for the job. Anyone who says
otherwise is in for a world of hurt.” (Physical Threat)
Example:
• Dr. Tewodros advocates a policy of increasing financial spending
for higher education. But that is not innocent advocacy, for the
reason that he is a college professor and would benefit financially
from such a policy.
Dr. Belay has argued against prayer in the public schools. Obviously
Dr. Belay advocates atheism. But atheism is what they used to have in
Russia. Atheism leads to the suppression of all religions and the
replacement of God by an omnipotent state. Is that what we want for
this country? I hardly think so. Clearly Dr. Belay’s argument is
nonsense.
Cont..
7. Missing the Point (Ignoratio Elenchi)
• This fallacy occurs when the premises of an
argument support one particular conclusion, but
then a different conclusion, often vaguely related
to the correct conclusion, is drawn.
• The conclusion drawn is not correct based on the
given premises.
• Example:
• “Our daughter got all D’s this semester at CU.
Every single professor there should be fired!”
Cont..
• Crimes of theft and robbery have been increasing at an
alarming rate lately. The conclusion is obvious: we
must reinstate the death penalty immediately.
• Abuse of the welfare system is rampant nowadays. Our
only alternative is to abolish the system altogether.
Innocent Disa
1st step ster