Objectives of this Session

1. We can learn the basic concept of Linguistics

2. We can read British English Properly.
3. We can improve our pronunciation.
4. We can read phonetic dictionary properly.
5. We can get the knowledge about IPA.
(International Phonetic Alphabet.)
6. We can get the deep knowledge about Speech Sounds.
7. We are able to understand Oral and Nasal sounds.
8 We can get the information about “The Organs Of Speech”.
 Basic Concept of Linguistics
“Linguistics is the study of social, historical, political, biological,
psychological and economic aspects of language”

“ Linguistics is the scientific study of natural language”

Linguistics is a huge area and includes:

Phonetics
Phonology
Semantics
Morphology
Syntax
Grammar
 Area of Linguistics
Phonetics:
Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that comprises the study of the
sounds of human speech, it is concerned with the physical properties of
speech sounds ( phones ).
Phonology:
Phonology is the study of sounds and gestures pattern in language.
Semantics:
Semantics deals with the meaning, and the relationships between
different meanings of words.
Morphology:
Morphology is the identification, analysis and description of the structure
of words.
Syntax:
Study of the symbols of language.
 Varieties of English Pronunciation

By historical coincidence we in India are used more to

British English than to American, Australian, or Canadian English.
So our obvious choice is one of the many varieties of British
English. Our choice is a dialect called Received
Pronunciation( RP). It is dialect of English spoken by educated
Southern Britishers.
So our model is RP. There are, indeed, several varieties
of English spoken in India, each variety being strongly colored by
the mother-tongue of the speakers of these varieties of English.
For Example: Tamil English, Bengali English, Punjabi English,Gujju
English and so on.
 International Phonetic Alphabet
In several languages there is no one to one correspondence
between the letters of the alphabet and the sounds they represent .
For e.g. A child who learns that the letters ‘ch’ in the word chin have
to be pronounced in a certain way will get into trouble if he
pronounces the same two letters ‘ch’ in word machine , the same
way as he was taught to pronounce the ch in chin . His
consternation will grow worse like character in which the two letters
ch represent a sound totally different from the ch in chin and the ch
in machine.
C- scale, cease
G- give, gin
Gh- cough, ghost
L- film, palm, calm
 International Phonetic Alphabet

Phonetic transcription is a useful device using which such

pitfalls can be avoided. There is an alphabet called the International
Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) which has symbols to represent all the
sounds that exist in the languages of the world. The alphabet is
used to transcribe words. This alphabet is based on the Roman
alphabet ( from A to Z ) are not sufficient to represent all the sounds
that exist in all the languages of the world. In fact it is not sufficient
to represent all the 44 sounds that exist in one variety of British
English.
 Importance Of Speech
A language can be used in two ways- spoken or written for the
purpose of communication.
The medium of speech is more important than the medium of
medium of writing.
1. Speech comes first in the history of any language community.
2. Speech comes first in the history of any individual.
3. Speech as a medium of communication is used much more than the
medium of writing.
4. In every language, a letter of alphabet represents a particular
sound.
5. Modern inventions like telephone, the radio, the tape recorder and
several such devices have concerned with speech.
 The Air Stream Mechanism
Linguistics is a systematic study of language. Phonetics is
a branch of linguistics and it is branch dealing with the medium of
speech. It deals with the production, transmission, and reception of
the sounds of human speech.
For the production of speech sounds we need an air
stream .
E.g. prolonged “ ah “ in whisper
The air we breathe out is modified into speech sounds.
For the articulation of most speech sounds of most languages, lung
air is used. When the air stream mechanism is used to push air out ,
it is called aggressive and it is used to draw air in, it is called
ingressive.
Definition of ‘the organs of speech’

“The air that we breathe out comes out of the lungs. Before it gets
out into the outer atmosphere various organs in our body convert it
into speech sounds .These organs are called the organs of
speech”
The organs of speech
Figure 2
 Classification of “The Organs of Speech”
1. The respiratory system :-

It consists of the lungs, the muscles of the chest and the

wind pipe. Respiration involves two processes- taking outer air into
the lungs ( called inspiration ) and throwing out air from the lungs
into the outer atmosphere ( called expiration )
2. The Phonotary system :- (Adam’s Apple / the sound Box)

This comprises the larynx. It is situated at the top of the

windpipe. Inside the larynx, there is a pair of lip like structure , known
as vocal cords. They are attached in front and can be separated the
back. The opening between the cords or the gap or place between
the cords is called Glottis.
Figure of Larynx
Figure of Larynx
 Classification of “The Organs of Speech”
3. The Articulator system:-
This comprises the nose , the teeth, the
roof of the mouth (hard palate, soft palate) and the lips. In
this classification Nasal and Oral systems are also
Included.

Nasal passage oral passage

 Classification Of Speech Sounds

Vowels Consonants

Pure vowels Diphthongs Nasal Oral

(8) (12) (3) (21)

Exam:- Shoe…………………….sh…………..oe……….
“ All sounds during the production of which we hear
friction are consonants , but not all consonants are
produced with friction “
 Classification of Consonant Sounds
1. The Place or point of Articulation.
2. The Manner of articulation.

 The place of articulation:-

Articulation means the production of sound. In
speech organs ,there are active articulators and passive
articulators. It is necessary for the formation of consonant
sound ,to have a contact between an active articulator and a
passive articulator at some point / place. And such a place
or point of contact is called the point of articulation.
Eg-while pronouncing / t / sound the blade of the tongue
touches the teeth ridge , that is said to be the point of
articulation
Figure of / t / sound
 The Manner Of Articulation
The manner in which the consonants are
produced and gives them different labels. It refers to
what happens to the speech organs and to the air
stream mechanism while producing a consonant sound.
It is not enough to identify a consonant as dental or
alveolar only , we should also describe what happens to
the concerned organs, when this sounds are produced
e.g. In case of sound s /p/ and /b/ . They are
pronounced with a certain amount of explosion of air from
the oral cavity after breaking s complete closure of the
lips. Such sounds are called plosives.
Figure of plosive sounds
 Two Way Classification Of Consonant Sounds
Place/Point Of Articulation

1. Bilabials. ( of two lips ) / p, b, m, w / (4)

2. Labio –dentals. ( of lips and teeth ) / f, v / (2)
3. Dentals. ( of teeth ) / θ,ð / (2)
4. Alveolars ( of teeth ridge ) / t, d, s, z, n, l / (6)
5. Post-Alveolars ( behind the teeth ridge ) / r / (1)
6. Palato Alveolars ( before palate and after alveolar)
/ ʧ, ʤ, ʃ, Ʒ / (4)
7. Palatals ( of the palate ) / j / (1)
8. Velar ( of the velum ) / k, g, η / (3)
9. Glottal ( of glottis ) /h/ (1)

Total: 24 Total: 24
 Manner Of Articulation
1. Plosives ( with plosion ) / p, b, t, d, k, g, / (6)

2. Fricatives ( with friction ) / f, v, θ,ð, s, z, ʃ, Ʒ, h / (9)

3. Affricates. ( with plosion friction ) / ʧ, ʤ / (2)

4. Nasals (with the air passing through noses ) / m, n, η / (3)

5. Lateral ( with the air escaping through the sides ) /l/ (1)

6. Frictionless Continuant. ( without friction ) /r/ (1

7. Semi-Vowels. ( partly consonant, partly Vowel ) ( j, w ) (2)

Total : 24 Total : 24
 Details of Speech Sounds

Bilabial :
The two lips are the articulators.
The initial sounds in the English words
: pile, bile and mile are b bilabial
sounds.
 Labio- Dental

Labio- Dental :

The active articulator is

the lower lip and the passive
articulators are the upper front
teeth. The initial sounds in the
English words the English words
fine and vine.
 Dental

Dental :
The tip of the tongue is
the active articulator and the
upper front teeth are the
passive articulators. The initial
sounds in the English words
Thin and Then
 Alveolar
Alveolar:
The tip or the blade of the tongue is the
active articulator and the teeth ridge is
the passive articulator. The initial
sound in the English words : Tin, Din,
Near, Sin, Zip, Love
/ n / Sound
 Post Alveolar
Post Alveolar:
The tip of tongue is the active articulator and the part of
the roof of the mouth that lies immediately behind the teeth ridge is
the passive articulator. The sound represented by letter /r/ in the
English words try and dry is an example of post alveolar sound.
Figure post alveolar
 Palato Alveolar
Palato Alveolar:
The tip or the blade of the
tongue is the active articulator
and the teeth is the passive
articulator. Simultaneously, the
front of the tongue is raised in the
direction of the hard palate. The
initial sounds in the English words
Sheep, Cheap, Jeep.
 Velar
Velar :
The back of the tongue is the active articulator and the soft palate is
the passive articulator. The final sound in the English words –back,
bag, and bang are some examples of a glottal sound.
/k, g / sound
 Glottal
: Glottal :
Glottal sounds are produced at the glottis and two vocal cords are the
articulators. The sound in the word : “hat” is an example of a glottal sound.
Glottal
 Description of consonant sounds according to their
“Manner of articulation”
Plosives: /p, b, t, d, k, g/ (complete closure and sudden
release)
Plosives
 Fricatives
Fricatives: / f, v, θ,ð, s, z, ʃ, Ʒ, h / = ( 9 )
(Close approximation)
The active articulator is brought so close to the passive
articulator that there is a very narrow gap between them. The soft
palate is raised so as to shut off the nasal passage of air . The lung
air escapes through the narrow space between the active and
passive articulators, producing audible friction.
Sounds that are articulated with a stricture of close
approximation are called fricatives
Figures of fricatives
Figure of Fricatives
 Affricates
Affricates. ( with plosion friction ) / ʧ, ʤ / (2)
Sounds produced with stricture of complete closure and slow
release are called affricates.
Figure:
 Nasals

Nasals : (with the air passing through noses ) / m, n, η / ( 3 )

“ Sounds articulated with a stricture of complete oral closure

are called Nasals “
Nasals
Nasals
Nasals
 Lateral

Lateral : / l / (partial closure )

Sounds which are articulated with a stricture of complete closure in

the centre of the vocal tract, but with the air escaping along the
sides of tongue without any friction are called Laterals.
Frictionless Continuants and Semi-Vowels
/ r, j, w /

Sounds articulated with stricture of open approximation are

called frictionless continuants and semi-vowels.
Semi vowels are vowels that function as consonants. They are
partly vowels and partly consonants. Some linguists consider /r/
also as a semi-vowel. In received pronunciation (R.P) we need not
pronounce / r / in the middle or lastly e.g – never, farm, learn etc.
Other varieties of English pronounce / r / in these words
(America, Irish, Scottish ) but RP is our model, so we need not
pronounce / r / .
The two semi – vowels are / j / and / w / .They are produced
without any kind of obstruction or stricture in the in the vocal tract.
Hence we call them vowels. / j / and / w / are phonetically vowels, but
functionally consonants.
 Classification of vowels
Vowels can be classified into front, back, central,
taking into consideration the part of the tongue that is the
highest in the mouth during their articulation.
1. Front vowels : / i:, i, e, æ /
beat: -/ i:/ bed : /e/
beet: -/ i:/ led : /e/
lit: -/i/ bad : /æ/
it: -/i/ sad : /æ/
2. Back Vowels : / a:, ‫ כ‬,‫כ‬:, u, u: /
cart: - / a: / push : / u /
lost: - /‫כ‬/ wool : / u: /
caught: - / ‫כ‬: / could : / u /
 Classification of vowels

Central vowels /۸, ә:,ә /

cup: /۸/ /k۸p/ earth: /ә:/ /ә:θ/

but : /۸ / / b۸t/ girl : /ә:/ / gә:l/
couple: / ۸ / / k۸pl/ agree: /ә/ /agri:/
lover : /۸/ /l۸v ә / about: /ә/ /әba:ut /
 Categories of Vowels
Vowels are divided into two categories :
1. Rounded Vowels :
Rounded vowels are those during the articulation of which the
lips are rounded. / ‫ כ‬,‫כ‬:, u, u: /

2. Unrounded vowels are those during the articulation of which the lips are
spread or neutral. / i:, i, e, æ , a:, ۸, ә:,ә /

To summarize, we describe a vowel taking into the

following criteria:
• The part of the tongue raised during its articulation. ( front,
central, back) .
• The position of the lips. ( rounded and unrounded )
 Important distinctions between vowels and consonants
Vowels Consonants

1. Can be pronounced independently. 1. Can be pronounced only with

the help of vowels.
2. Can be pronounced freely without 2. Can be pronounced with some
friction. Obstruction and constriction.
3. Vowels are musical. 3. consonants are not musical.
4. All vowels are voiced . 4. Some consonants are voiced,
some are not.
5. Meanings are not clear with vowel 5. With consonant clusters we can
clusters. guess the meaning to some
extent. E.g.. g- l- d ( gold )
Phonemic Transcription