Chapter 1

Umar Ali
Lecturer, Department of Computer
Science, University of Swat
 DATA COMMUNICATION
• Data Communication is the exchange of
Information from one entity to the other using a
Transmission Medium”.
– When we communicate , we share information
– Information can be LOCAL or REMOTE
– Between Individuals LOCAL communication occurs
face to face
– REMOTE communication occurs over a long distance
– When we refer to COMPUTER SYSTEMS, Data is
represented in the form of Binary Units (Bits) in the
form of Zeros (0’s) and One’s (1’s)
 DATA COMMUNICATION
• “Data Communication is the exchange of
data (in the form of 0’s and 1’s) between
two devices (computers) via some form of
the transmission medium.”
  
LOCAL and REMOTE Data
Communication
• LOCAL
– Data communication is considered to be local if
the communicating devices are present in the
same building or a similarly restricted
geographical area
• REMOTE
– Data Communication is considered remote, if the
devices are farther apart.
 Data Communication System
 For Data Communication to occur,
communicating devices must be a part of
a system made up of some specific kind of
hardware and software. This system is
known as
“DATA COMMUNICATION SYSTEM”
Effectiveness of Data Comm. System
1. Delivery
 The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be
received by the intended device or user and only by that device or user.
2. Accuracy
The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been
altered in transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
3.Timeliness
The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are
useless. In the case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering
data as they are produced, in the same order that they are produced,
and without significant delay. This kind of delivery is called real-time
transmission.
(Better NEVER than LATE) e.g. postal mail
4. Jitter
jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven
delay in the delivery of audio or video packets
Data Communication System
Components
Components of a Data Communication
System
• A Data communication system is
made up of 5 components:
– Message
– Sender
– Receiver
– Medium
– Protocol
 MESSAGE

• Information or Data to be communicated

• Can be text, numbers, video or any combination of these
• In short anything that can be represented using binary bits
– Files (meaningful collections of records)
– Data/information requests (database queries, Web page
requests, etc.)
– Responses to requests and commands or error messages
– Status messages (about the network’s functional status)
– Control messages transmitted between network devices to
control network traffic
– Correspondence among network users
 SENDER
• Device that sends the data message
• Can be a Computer , Workstation, Video
camera etc
• As already discussed, the data from the
sender might not be in the appropriate format
for the transmission medium and will need to
be processed
 RECEIVER

• Device that receives the message

• Can be a computer, workstation, Television
etc
• At times, the data received from the
transmission medium may not be in a proper
form to be supplied to the receiver and it
must be processed
 MEDIUM

• Physical path that a message uses to travel

from the Sender to the Receiver
• Can be a Copper Cable (Telephone), Coaxial
Cable (Cable TV), Fiber Optic Cable, LASERS or
Radio Waves (Wireless Medium)
• We will see that Data needs to be transferred
in the form of ELECTROMAGNETIC signals and
The Transmission Medium should be capable
of carrying these EM Signals
 PROTOCOL

• Set of Rules Governing Communication

• Represents an Agreement between
communication devices
• Without Protocol, two devices may be
connected but they will not be able to
communicate
• EXAMPLE: Consider the communication between two individuals. They
can only communicate provided they both speak the same language.
 Network
• A “Network” is a set of devices (Nodes)
connected by Communication Links
– A node can be a computer, printer, or any other
device capable of sending and/or receiving data
generated by other nodes on the network.
 Networks- Why we need Them?
• It is often impractical for devices to be directly
connected for two major reasons::::::::
– The devices are very far apart. They are expensive
to connect just two devices with one in Lahore
and other in Islamabad
– Large set of devices would need impractical
number of connections e .g. Telephone Lines in
the world and all the computers owned by a single
organization
Solution to the Problem Networks
• Solution is to connect all devices to a central
system known as a NETWORK in which all
terminals or computers share the links. 
• Two Main Classifications of the Networks
– LANS
– WANS
 DISTRIBUTED PROCESSING
• Instead of a single large machine being
responsible for all aspects of a process , each
separate computer handles a subset of the
task
– Example – Project Given as a part of the Course
– Example – Office Work
Advantages of Distributed Processing

• Security
• Distributed Data bases
• Faster Problem Solving
• Security through Redundancy
• Collaborative Processing
Network Criteria
 Performance
• Can be measured in many ways including
Transit and Response Time
• Depends on a no. of Factors:
– Number of USERS
– Type of Transmission Medium
– Hardware
– Software
– Network Criteria
 Performance cont
– Number of USERS
• Large Number of concurrent users slow network
• Design of a network
• Peak Load Periods
• Network Criteria
– Type of Transmission Medium
• Medium defines speed at which data can travel
• Fiber Optic Cable
• 100Mbps and 10 Mbps
 Performance cont
– Hardware
• Effect speed and the capacity of transmission
• Fast computer with large storage capacity
– Software
• Software processes data at sender , receiver and
intermediate nodes
• All communication steps need software:
• Moving message from node to node
• Transforming,
• Processing at the sender and receiver
• Error Free Delivery
 Reliability
• Depends on a no. of Factors:
– Frequency of Failure
– Recovery Time of a Network after Failure
– Fire , Earthquake or Theft
 Security
• Unauthorized Access
– Sensitive data
– Protection at multiple levels:
• Lower level: Passwords and user ID codes
• Upper Level: Encryption
– policies and procedures for recovery from
breaches and data losses.
 Data Flow/Transmission mode
• Communication between two devices can be
simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex.
 Simplex
• the communication is unidirectional, as on a
one-way street. Only one of the two devices
on a link can transmit; the other can only
receive. It uses the entire capacity of the
channel.
• Example:
– Keyboard
– monitor
Simplex
 Half Duplex
• Each station can both transmit and receive, but
not at the same time.
• When one device is sending, the other can only
receive, and vice versa.
• The capacity of the channel is used by s taken
over by whichever of the two devices is
transmitting at the time
• Example
– Walkie-talkies
Half Duplex
 Full duplex
• In full-duplex(als0 called duplex), both stations
can transmit and receive simultaneously.
• In full-duplex mode, signals going in one
direction share the capacity of the link: with
signals going in the other direction.
• Example
– telephone network
Full duplex
 Type of Connection
• A network is two or more devices connected
through links. A link is a communications
pathway that transfers data from one device
to another
– Point-to-Point
– Multipoint
 Point-to-Point
• A point-to-point connection provides a
dedicated link between two devices. The
entire capacity of the link is reserved for
transmission between those two devices.
• Example
– infrared remote control.
Point-to-Point
 Multipoint
• A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection
is one in which more than two specific devices
share a single link.
• in a multipoint environment, the capacity of
the channel is shared, either spatially or
temporally. If several devices can use the link
simultaneously, it is a spatially shared
connection. If users must take turns, it is a
timeshared connection.
Multipoint
  
TOPOLOGY
• “The Topology is the geometric
representation of the relationship of the links
and the linking devices (Nodes) in a Network”

• “Topology defines the physical or the Logical

Agreement of Links in a Network”
• Topology of a Network is suggestive of how a
network is laid out. It refers to the specific
configuration and structure of the connections
between the Links and the Nodes. Two or
more devices connect to a Link and two or
more Links form a Topology
Topology
 Mesh topology
• Every device has dedicated a point-to-point
link to every other device
• Dedicated: Means that the link carries traffic
only between these two devices
• Number of Links required to connect ‘n’
devices: n(n-1)/2
Mesh topology
 Links and Ports in Mesh Topology
• In figure above, we have 5 Nodes, therefore:
– No. of Links= 5(5-1)/2 = 10
– No. of I/O Ports= 5-1 = 4
– This increase exponentially with increase in No.
of Nodes 
e.g. 6 nodes = 15 Links
7 Nodes=21 Links
 Advantages of Mesh Topology
• Use of Dedicated links guarantees that each
connection can carry its own load. This
eliminates Traffic Problems as in case of
Shared Link
• Mesh Topology is robust. If one link fails, it
does not effect other links
• Security & Privacy due to dedicated links
• Point – to –Point links make Fault
Identification easy
 Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
• Amount of Cabling
– Makes Installation & Reconfiguration difficult
– Sheer bulk of wiring can be greater than the
available space
• Number of I/O Ports Required
– Hardware required to connect each link can be
prohibitively expensive
• Therefore, Mesh topology has limited use
  
Star Topology
• Each device has a dedicated point-to-point
link to a central controller ( Hub/Switch)
• Devices are not directly connected to each
other
• Controller (Hub/Switch) acts as an exchange
• If one device wants to send data to the other,
it sends the data to the controller , which then
relays it to the other connected device
Star topology
 Advantages of Star Topology
– Less Cabling
– Less Expensive than Mesh as each device need
sonly one link and one I./O Port
– Easy to Install and Reconfigure
– Robust, if a link fails , only that link fails
– Easy Fault Detection
Disadvantages of Star Topology
– Although Cabling required is far less than Mesh
– Still each node must be connected to a Hub , so
Cabling is still much more than some other
Topologies
 Tree topology
• A variation of Star Topology
• Nodes in a Tree are linked to a central hub
that controls the traffic to and from network
• Difference b/w star and tree is not all the
devices plug directly into the central HUB
• Majority connects to secondary hub that is
connected to central hub
Tree topology
 Tree topology
• CENTRAL HUB in Tree Topology
– Central Hub in a Tree is an ACTIVE HUB
– ACTIVE HUB contains a repeater
– Repeater is a hardware device that regenerates
the received bit pattern before sending them out.
– Repeater strengthens TX. And increases the
distance a signal can travel 
• Secondary HUB in Tree Topology
– Secondary Hub in a Tree may be Active or Passive
HUB.Passive Hub simply provides physical
connection between attached devices
 Advantages of Tree Topology
• Because of Secondary Hub, More devices can be
attached to a Central Hub and therefore increase the
distance a signal can travel
• Enables Differentiated Services: Allows to prioritize
communication, e.g. computers attached to one
secondary hub can be given priority over others
• Therefore, TIME SENSITIVE data will not have to wait
for access to the network
• Rest of the advantages are almost the same as STAR
• Example Tree Topology: Cable TV
 BUS TOPOLOGY
• All the previous topologies describe Point-to-
point communication
• Bus Topology is Multipoint
• One long cable acts as a BACKBONE to link all
devices in the network
• Drop Lines and Taps
• Drop Line is the connection between device
and the main cable (Backbone)
• Tap is a connector that;
– Splices into the main cable or
– Punctures the sheathing of a cable to create
connection with the metallic core
• Signal degrades as it travels, therefore there is
a limit on:
– The number of Taps a Bus can support and
– The distance between those Taps
 Advantages of BUS TOPOLOGY
• Easy to install
– Backbone can be laid on the most efficient path
and then rest of the nodes can be connected using
Drop Lines
• Less cabling than Mesh , Star or Tree
• Difference b/w Star Cabling and Bus Cabling
 Disadvantages of BUS Topology
• Difficult Reconfiguration
– Difficult to add new devices
– Adding new devices may require modification of
backbone
• No Fault Isolation
– A fault or break in backbone can disable
communication even on the same side of the
problem
– Damaged area reflects signals back in the direction
of origin creating Noise in both directions
 Ring Topology
• Each device has point-to-point dedicated link
with only two devices on either side
• A signal is passed in the ring in one direction
from device to device until it reaches its
destination
• Each device has a repeater incorporated
• When a device receives a signal destined for
another device, it regenerates the bits and
pass them along
 Advantages of Ring Topology
• Easy to Install and Reconfigure
– Only two connections to be moved to add or delete
a device
• SIMPLE Fault Isolation
– Generally a signal is circulating at all times in a ring.
– If one device does not receive a signal within a
specified period, it can issue an alarm to tell
network operator about the problem and its
location
  
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
• Unidirectional Traffic
– A break in a ring I.e. a disabled station can disable
the entire network
• Can be solved by using:
– Dual Ring or
– A switch capable of closing off the Break
 Hybrid Topologies
• Several topologies combined in a larger
topology
– Example: One department of a business may have
decided to use a Bus while other has a Ring
• The two can be connected via a Central
Controller in Star Topology
 Categories of Networks
• There are three main categories of Networks:
– LANS
– WANS
– MANS
• Into which category a network falls is
determined by its SIZE, OWNERSHIP,
DISTANCE IT COVERS, and its PHYSICAL
ARCHITECTURE
 LANS
• Ownership
– A LAN is usually Privately owned and Links the
devices in a single office, Building or a campus
• Two Implications
– Care must be taken in choice of a LAN, because
there may be a substantial capital investment for
purchase and maintenance.
– Secondly, the network management responsibility
falls solely on the user/company
• Size of a LAN
– Size of a LAN depends upon the Needs of
Organization and the Type of Technology
– LAN can be as simple as two PCs and a printer in
someone’s home office or it can extend
throughout a company and include complex
equipment too
– Currently LAN size is limited to a few kilometers 
• Design of a LAN
• LANs are designed to allow resources to be shared
between personal computers or workstations
• The resources to be shared can include hardware
(printer) , software(an application program) or data.
– Example of a LAN
• A common example of a LAN found in many business
environments links a work group of task related
computers, for example engineering workstations or
Accounting PCs. One of the PCs may be given a large
capacity disk and becomes a server to others. Software
stored on the server and is used by the whole group. In
this case size is determined by software licenses
• Transmission Media & Topology
– In addition to size, LANs are distinguished from
other types of networks by Transmission media and
topology
– In general a given LAN will use only one type of
Transmission medium
– The most common LAN topology Bus, Star Ring
• Data Rates in a LAN
– Traditionally 4 – 16 Mbps
– Speeds increased and now 100Mbps and above are
also possible
 WANs
• Ownership
– Generally cover a large geographical area and it usually
span an Unlimited number of miles by utilizing Public
or Leased networks instead of having their own
hardware as in the case of LANs
• Design of a WAN
– Typically , it consists of a large number of Switching
Nodes
– Transmission from any one device is routed through
these internal nodes to the specified destination device
• These nodes are not concerned with the content of
the data, rather their purpose is to provide a switching
facility that will move the data from node to node until
it reaches its destination
• How to Implement a WAN?
– Traditionally WAN s have been implemented using one
of the 2 technologies:
• Circuit Switching
• Packet Switching
• Frame Relay and ATM Networks play important role
nowadays too
 Metropolitan Area Networks

• Designed to extend over an entire city

• It may be a single network e.g Cable TV
NetworkOr
• Interconnection of a No. of LANs into a larger
network
• Example: A company can use a MAN to
connect the LANs in all of its offices
throughout a city
 Internetworks
• When two or more networks are connected
they become an internetwork or internet
• Individual networks are joined together by the
use of Internetworking Devices like Routers,
Gateways etc.  
• internet: Combination of Networks
• Internet: Specific World wide Network
 Protocols
• In computer networks, communication occurs
between entities in different systems. An entity is
anything capable of sending or receiving information.
However, two entities can not simply send bit streams
to each other and expect to be understood. For
communication to occur, the entities must agree on a
protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data
communications. A protocol defines what is
communicated, how it is communicated, and when it
is communicated.
 key elements of a protocol
• Syntax.
– The term syntax refers to the structure or format
of the data, meaning the order in which they are
presented. For example, a simple protocol might
expect the first 8 bits of data to be the address of
the sender, the second 8 bits to be the address of
the receiver, and the rest of the stream to be the
message itself.
• Semantics.
– The word semantics refers to the meaning of each
section of bits. How is a particular pattern to be
interpreted, and what action is to be taken based
on that interpretation? For example, does an
address identify the route to be taken or the final
destination of the message?
• Timing.
– The term timing refers to two characteristics:
when data should be sent and how fast they can
be sent. For example, if a sender produces data at
100 Mbps but the receiver can process data at
only 1Mbps, the transmission will overload the
receiver and some data will be lost.
 Standards
• A standard provides a model for development
that makes it possible for a product to work
regardless of the individual manufacturer”
 Why Standards are Essential?
• Standards are essential in:

– Creating/Maintaining Open and

Competitive Markets

– Guaranteeing National/International
Interoperability
 Categories of Standards

Standards

De jure De facto
(By Law) (By Fact)
 Categories of Standards
De Jure Standards:
These are the standards that
exists by law.

De Facto Standards:

These are the standards that
exists by facts.
 Standards Organizations
• Standards are developed mainly by 3
entities:

–Standard Committees
–Forums
–Regulatory Agencies
 Standard Creation Committees
• The International Standards Organization (ISO)

• The International Telecommunication Union-

Telecommunications Standard Sector
(ITU-T)
 Standard Creation Committees

• The American National Standard Institute

(ANSI)

• The Institute of Electrical and Electronics

Engineers (IEEE)
 FORUMS
• Frame Relay Forum
• ATM Forum
• Internet Society
• Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
 Regulatory Agencies
• FCC (Federal Communication Commission)
 Internet Standards
• tested specification that is useful to and
adhered to by those who work with the
Internet.
• It is a formalized regulation that must be
followed
• A specification begins as an Internet draft. An
Internet draft is a working docu-ment (a work in
progress) with no official status and a 6-month
lifetime.
• Upon recommendation from the Internet
authorities, a draft may be published as a
Request for Comment (RFC). Each RFC is
edited, assigned a number, and made
available to all interested parties.
• The end of chapter 1