Foundations of Research Writing

Ademe Mekonnen, PhD

Professor of Atmospheric Science & Meteorology
Department of Physics
North Carolina A&T State University
Greensboro, NC 27411
Ph: +1-385-2222; email: [email protected]

“Scientific Writing and Grant Proposal Development Seminar”

January 14, 2023, starting 8am EST (4pm Ethiopian Time)
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 Foundations of Research Writing

References:
• “An Outline of Scientific Writing” by JT Yang
• “Eloquent Science” by David Schultz
• “Science Research Writing for Non-Native
Speakers of English” by H. Glasman-Deal
• “The Sense of Structure: Writing from the
Readers perspective” by George D. Gopen

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1) The process of publishing scientific papers

2) Should you publish your paper? Questions to

ask before you begin writing

3) Writing an effective title

4) The structure of a scientific paper

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1) The Process of Publishing Scientific Papers
• Publishing: authors  Target journal  submit
for publication and this involves editors,
reviewers, etc. If accepted  copy & technical
editors, the publisher.
Goal is to publish the best quality research
paper.

• This implies a process: submission, editorial

process including peer-reviewing, and the process
that accepted papers undergo and finally
becoming a body of scientific literature
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 1.1) Submission
Author has a vision where his/her work be published –
target journal.
Read target journal rules and instruction for authors
and be aware of specific formats (e.g. font size,
margins, space formats, etc.).
In modern times, nearly all journals have websites
where authors can upload digital files in their native
format (Microsoft Word, LaTex, etc.)
Journals require complete list of coauthors, contact
info and suggested reviewers. Some journals allow a
declaration of people who should not act as reviewers
because of potential conflict.
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Journals may require declaration that the work has
not been previously published and has not been
submitted elsewhere. Journals often require
copyright transfer.

The final step before peer review includes an initial

screening at the journal to ensure that the submitted
work meets basic standards of length, organization,
and format for the journal.

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1.2) Editors and reviewers
Begins after manuscript is approved to start the review
process – notification to the chief editor for decision
which editor/editors oversee the manuscript and
responsibility may be transferred. Editor may also
recommends transferring to another journal. The
Editor could also reject before any peer review, if
determined that the manuscript is not up to the
Journal’s standard (not written well, questionable
science or both).
If manuscript is to be peer reviewed, reviewers will be
enlisted to provide comments (reviewers should be
knowledgeable to the manuscript area of science). 7
The reviewers read and provide written report on the
suitability of the manuscript for publication.
Recommendations:
a) Accept as is
b) Return for minor revisions
c) Return for major revisions
d) Reject
e) Transfer to another journal

Then, editor weighs the reviewer’s recommendations

and makes decision. Decision will be communicated to
authors.

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Final decision to publish manuscript depends on
factors such as satisfactory responses to reviews.

1.3) Technical editing, copying editing, and page

proofs
Once manuscript is accepted for publication, it is
forwarded to the publisher.
Next steps: copy editing and technical editing.
Copy editing for grammar, style of text, and Technical
editing for review of scientific meaning of sentences,
abbreviations, symbols, terminology, suitability of
abstract, layout (equations, tables, figures, etc.)

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2) Should you publish your paper/article?
• Worthy of publication?
• How do you identify & attract an audience?
• Which journal/publisher?
2.1) Is the work publishable?
• Develop a testable hypotheses,
• New scientific knowledge to be gained
– List of questions that will be asked and answered
• Now, check to see if you are asking good scientific questions!
Is the science original? Conclusion based on evidence?
• Is the information substantial enough to warrant publication?
• Impact of the paper
– Current relevance or future impact?

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2.2) Audience
- Know your audience, your readers
- aim at attracting your audience (reader needs to be
enticed!)

2.3) Target journal

Selecting a target journal early in the writing process
based on the intended audience, and formatting
required by the journal will garner favorable outcome
from the review process.
Note – the manuscript topic should be compatible
with the topic of the journal.
When selecting a journal think of the actual
readership and potential readership. 12
3) Writing an effective title
• Well worded and catchy title: accurate, concise
and attention-commanding titles are very
important.
• Title is your first exposure of your work to an
audience.

3.1) An effective title

i) Informative – identify one or two main points in
the paper to communicate to the audience.
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 ii) Accurate: the title should be truthful about
the contents of the paper.
iii) clear: Save reader from wondering what
the title means.
iv) Concise: short titles are recognizable
v) Attention commanding: if need consider
provocative one.
Note: ideally, titles strive to adhere to the
above characteristics. But not all may be met or
can be met in one title. This will be up to the
author.

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3.2 Structuring the title:
Title should reflect the most important information
of the research. Good titles catch reader’s eyes.
“Eloquent Science” quoted this from a book by R. Day & B.
Gastel’s book : “[A good title is] the fewest possible words that
adequately describe the contents of the paper.”

A good title can be structured by considering the following:

Keywords: e.g., electronic search
First words of the title:
Word choice and acronyms: avoid vague words
Word order and “using”: be careful of its order!
Titles starting with “on”: Readers may view in different ways
Assertive sentence titles: requires solid results!
Colons (colonic titles): emphasizes the first word or phrase
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4) The Structure of a Scientific Paper

• Organization is very important for a scientific

paper

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• Depending on the intent of the author and nature of research,
papers may be organized in different ways. In general, a
generic scientific document will have the following structure:
– Cover page
– Abstract
– Keywords
– Introduction
– Background/literature review
– Data and Methods
– Results
– Discussion
– Conclusion/Summary
– Acknowledgement
– Appendices
– References
– Tables and figures
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• However, not all papers have to follow the
generic structure. For example, theoretical
paper based on derivations may not have a
data section. Some documents may require a
different organization that will depend on
materials to be covered, article length,
audience, and format requirements of the
publication.

• Organization is important! Not all readers read

your paper from start to end.
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 Cover page
• Title
• List of authors and affiliations
• Type of document, target journal, status of
manuscript
• Date of last revisions
• Corresponding author name, mailing address,
phone, fax, email …

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 Information contained in Abstract
• Principal objective and scope
• Methods employed
• Summary of the results
• Principal conclusions

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 Keywords
• Not all journals require this. Keywords are
used to organize by topic in the journal’s year-
end index, for abstract services, and to aid in
electronic search

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 Introduction
• Contextualizing background information
• Problem statement
• Response to the problem

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 Literature synthesis (or review)
• One of most important sections
– Motivates the manuscript in historical &
scholarly context and through showing
research needed to solve the existing problem.

• Rubric for determining quality of literature

synthesis (from “Eloquent Science”; next slide).

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Category Criterion
Coverage Justified criteria for inclusion and exclusion

Synthesis • Distinguish what has been done (and not

done)
• Place in context
• Articulate important variables
• Synthesized and gained new perspective
Methodology Identified main methods used and techniques
used including advantages/disadvantages

Significance Significance of the problem

Rhetoric Coherent, clear structure that supported the

review

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 Literature survey
• How many and how recent?
– Basics –
• which reference to cite?
• How many should be included?
• Accurately cited?
• Avoid ambiguity!
– “Air pollution affects plants in many ways (Joe 2015;
Albert 2000; Newton 1880)”
– Placement of reference in the text
– Weak or ambiguous references
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 references and citations:
• In a way, its an acknowledgement of
publications that have come before
• help us know our field, opportunity to show
depth and breadth of our work
• Historical context and historical development
• Distinguish our work from the previous research
• Critique past work
• Use quotations or figures or data, as appropriate

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 Literature review
• be thorough and critical review
• literature review leading to a logical conclusion (e.g.
because investigators in the literature used method A and
ran into problem A, I am going to use method B)
• research leading to relevant theory?
• Note: literature should be well summarized
• Check to see if the chosen literatures are integrated

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 Data and Methods
• A complete Data section is essential
• The methods followed should be clearly
explained

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 Results section
• This is the very important part of the
paper!
– Begin by an overview or big picture of results
– Needs to be focused

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 Discussion section
• Explore alternative interpretations, discuss
unresolved issues, introduce speculative
material, present overarching themes to
integrate, extend and extrapolate your results
for the audience.
• Note this section can be optional.

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 Conclusion/Summary section
• A brief section that list principal conclusions of
the paper.
• Needs to leave the reader with important part
of the paper in the readers mind.
• Should clearly show where those conclusions
in the paper leads the readers to.

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Acknowledgment

Appendices

References

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 Alternative organization
• Not all papers follow the above typical
organization. For example, a paper may have
the following organization:
– Introduction
– Previous literature
– Data and Methods
– Results
– Discussion
– Conclusion
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 5) Motivation to Write
• Strategies for overcoming obstacles to write:
– Define and focus the topic
– Define the audience (Know the audience)
– Write throughout the research process
– Need a plan for writing
– Deadlines
– Submit your work to a conference
– Set time to write
– Environment that motivates you to write
– Break your project into components
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 6) Brainstorm, outline, and first draft
• Brainstorming allows to think randomly, deeply and widely
– Title sentence
– Write down your questions/hypotheses
– List what is known and what needs to be known
– Jot down things that come to mind
• Outlining organizes and focuses thoughts into a framework that can
be explained clearly

• This should lead you to your first draft.

• Note: if your paper is not well written, it gives an impression that the
subject is not clear to you.

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Scientific Presentation
Oral Presentations
 Meetings & Presentations
• Meetings (conferences, workshop, etc.) are
important for research and development.
– Can fuel new research ideas
– Provide feedback on preliminary research results
– Help market your research
 Meetings …
• Can be expensive, so need a carbon footprint,
i.e., worth spending time and finances.
• Poor quality presentation means wasting time, energy ,
etc. of scientists
• They are primary way of communication of
your preliminary results
• Useful for networking and face-to-face
meetings
Good habits include note taking and engaging!
 Presentations versus articles :
• Presentations must be focused
• Presentations have more flexibility
• Captive audience
• Immediate feedback
• Presentations can be provocative
• Presentations can maintain fresh content
 Constructing effective oral presentation
• Storyboard your presentation:
• Start constructing: start your slideware, write notes on what you
want to say about every slide.
– Start with title slide, authors, co-authors. List of content or outline may not
be necessary. Present motivation, purpose or goals of the presentation. Or
just following the title slide, present something unique – something that
contradicts traditional thinking. You may avoid literature synthesis in slides
– Last slide should be one with briefly worded conclusion. Do not make
obvious very general statements.
• Design good slides
• Headlines better than titles
• Delete unnecessary words: do not clutter your presentation by too
many words.
• Include relevant and clear graphics
• Use effective transitions
 Delivering compelling oral presentation
Know your material and thoroughly prepare for your
presentation!
• Rehearse to reduce anxiety
• Prepare before presentation (Print out a copy)
• Strong opening – keep you connected
• Keep momentum going
• Finish strong
• Have a compelling delivery
• Maintain eye contact
• Watch the time
• Questions and Answers
 Open Discussions
Questions, comments, feedback …

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