Hypothesis Formulation

A hypothesis is used to explain a phenomenon or

predict a relationship in communication
research. There are four evaluation criteria that a
hypothesis must meet.
• First, it must state an expected relationship between variables.
• Second, it must be testable and falsifiable; researchers must be
able to test whether a hypothesis is true or false.
• Third, it should be consistent with the existing body of
knowledge.
• Finally, it should be stated as simply and concisely as possible.
Formulating a hypothesis In experimental settings,
requires a specific, researchers compare two
testable, and predictable or more groups of research
statement driven by participants to investigate
theoretical guidance the differences in the
and/or prior evidence. A research outcomes.
hypothesis can be
formulated in various
research designs.
What are the 3 steps to formulate a hypothesis?
Step 1: State the question your experiment is looking to
answer.

Step 2: Identify your independent and dependent

variables.

Step 3: Write an "If, Then" statement that clearly defines

the focus and variables of the experiment.
A few examples of simple hypotheses:

"Students who eat breakfast will perform better on a

math exam than students who do not eat breakfast.”

"If I do not study, then I will fail the test."

METHODOLOGY
Research methodology is the path through
which researchers need to conduct their
research. It shows the path through which
these researchers formulate their problem and
objective and present their results from the
data obtained during the study period.
The research design is intended to provide
an appropriate framework for a study. A very
significant decision in the research design
process is the choice to be made regarding the
research approach since it determines how
relevant information for a study will be
obtained; however, the research design
process involves many interrelated decisions
The following are research methods
commonly used in Capstone
research:
1. Case studies
2. Interviews
3. Surveys
DATA COLLECTION
 ESTABLISHING APPROPRIATE
METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION

Data collection methods were focused on the

following basic techniques. These included
secondary and primary data collections
focusing on both qualitative and quantitative
data as defined in the previous section.
 ESTABLISHING APPROPRIATE
METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION

Data collection methods were focused on the

following basic techniques. These included
secondary and primary data collections
focusing on both qualitative and quantitative
data as defined in the previous section.
 ESTABLISHING APPROPRIATE
METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION

Primary data sources are qualitative and

quantitative. The qualitative sources are field
observation, interview, and informal
discussions, while quantitative data sources
are survey questionnaires and interview
questions.
 Step 1: Consider your aims and approach
The first choice you need to make is whether you’ll
take a qualitative or quantitative approach.
Qualitative approach Quantitative approach

•Understand subjective experiences, •Measure different types of variables

beliefs, and concepts  and describe frequencies, averages,
•Gain in-depth knowledge of a specific and correlations
context or culture •Test hypotheses about relationships
•Explore under-researched problems between variables
and generate new ideas •Test the effectiveness of a new
treatment, program or product
 Step 1: Consider your aims and approach
The first choice you need to make is whether you’ll
take a qualitative or quantitative approach.
Qualitative research example
Qualitative research designs
A qualitative approach would make
tend to be more flexible and the most sense if you want to
inductive, allowing you to adjust generate new ideas for online
your approach based on what teaching strategies. You can use this
you find throughout the research type of research to explore exactly
process. what teachers and students struggle
with in remote classes.
 Step 1: Consider your aims and approach
The first choice you need to make is whether you’ll
take a qualitative or quantitative approach.
Quantitative research example
Quantitative research designs
If you want to test the effectiveness
tend to be more fixed and of an online teaching method, a
deductive, with variables and quantitative approach is most
hypotheses clearly defined in suitable. You can use this type of
advance of data collection. research to measure learning
outcomes like grades and test scores.
 Step 1: Consider your aims and approach
Practical and ethical considerations when designing research
As well as scientific considerations, you need to think practically when designing
your research. If your research involves people or animals, you also need to
consider research ethics.

 How much time do you have to collect data and write up the research?
 Will you be able to gain access to the data you need (e.g., by travelling to a
specific location or contacting specific people)?
 Do you have the necessary research skills (e.g., statistical analysis or
interview techniques)?
 Will you need ethical approval?
 Step 2: Choose a type of research design
Within both qualitative and quantitative approaches, there are several types of
research designs to choose from. Each type provides a framework for the overall
shape of your research.
TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

Experimental and quasi-experimental designs allow you to test

cause-and-effect relationships

Descriptive and correlational designs allow you to measure

variables and describe relationships between them.
 Step 2: Choose a type of research design
Type of design Purpose and characteristics
Experimental •Used to test causal relationships
•Involves manipulating an independent variable and measuring its effect on a 
dependent variable
•Subjects are randomly assigned to groups
•Usually conducted in a controlled environment (e.g., a lab)

Quasi-experimental •Used to test causal relationships

•Similar to experimental design, but without random assignment
•Often involves comparing the outcomes of pre-existing groups
•Often conducted in a natural environment (higher ecological validity)

Correlational •Used to test whether (and how strongly) variables are related
•Variables are measured without influencing them

Descriptive •Used to describe characteristics, averages, trends, etc

•Variables are measured without influencing them
 Step 2: Choose a type of research design
Correlational design example
You could use a correlational design to find out if the rise in
online teaching in the past year correlates with any change in
test scores.
But this design can’t confirm a causal relationship between the
two variables. Any change in test scores could have been
influenced by many other variables, such as increased stress
and health issues among students and teachers.
 Step 2: Choose a type of research design
Experimental design example
In an experimental design, you could gather a sample of
students and then randomly assign half of them to be taught
online and the other half to be taught in person, while
controlling all other relevant variables.

By comparing their outcomes in test scores, you can be more

confident that it was the method of teaching (and not other
variables) that caused any change in scores.
 Step 2: Choose a type of research design

TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

Qualitative designs are less strictly defined. This approach is about
gaining a rich, detailed understanding of a specific context or
phenomenon, and you can often be more creative and flexible in
designing your research.
 Step 2: Choose a type of research design
TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS
Type of design Purpose and characteristics
Case study •Detailed study of a specific subject (e.g., a place, event, organization, etc).
•Data can be collected using a variety of sources and methods.
•Focuses on gaining a holistic understanding of the case.

Ethnography •Detailed study of the culture of a specific community or group.

•Data is collected by extended immersion and close observation.
•Focuses on describing and interpreting beliefs, conventions, social
dynamics, etc.

Grounded theory •Aims to develop a theory inductively by systematically analyzing qualitative

data.

Phenomenology •Aims to understand a phenomenon or event by describing participants’

lived experiences.
Step 3: Identify your population and sampling
method
Your research design should clearly define who or what your
research will focus on, and how you’ll go about choosing your
participants or subjects.

In research, a population is an entire group that you want to

draw conclusions about, while a sample is the smaller group
of individuals you’ll actually collect data from.
 Step 3: Identify your population and sampling
method
Sampling methods
Even with a narrowly defined population, it’s rarely possible to
collect data from every individual. Instead, you’ll collect data
from a sample.

To select a sample, there are two main approaches:

probability sampling and non-probability sampling. The
sampling method you use affects how confidently you can
generalize your results to the population as a whole.
 Step 3: Identify your population and sampling
method
Probability sampling Non-probability sampling
•Sample is selected using •Sample selected in a non-
random methods random way
•Mainly used in quantitative •Used in both qualitative and
research quantitative research
•Allows you to make strong •Easier to achieve, but more
statistical inferences about risk of research bias
the population
 Step 3: Identify your population and sampling
method
SAMPLING PROCEDURES
As well as choosing an appropriate sampling method, you need a
concrete plan for how you’ll actually contact and recruit your selected
sample. That means making decisions about things like:
• How many participants do you need for an adequate sample size?
• What inclusion and exclusion criteria will you use to identify eligible
participants?
• How will you contact your sample—by mail, online, by phone, or in
person?
 Step 3: Identify your population and sampling
method
Case selection in qualitative research
In some types of qualitative designs, sampling may not be
relevant.
For example, in an ethnography or a case study, your aim is
to deeply understand a specific context, not to generalize to a
population. Instead of sampling, you may simply aim to
collect as much data as possible about the context you are
studying.
 Step 4: Choose your data collection methods
Data collection methods are ways of directly measuring
variables and gathering information. They allow you to gain
first-hand knowledge and original insights into your research
problem.

You can choose just one data collection method, or use several
methods in the same study.
 Step 4: Choose your data collection methods
Survey methods
Surveys allow you to collect data about opinions, behaviors,
experiences, and characteristics by asking people directly.

There are two main survey methods to choose from:

questionnaires and interviews.
 Step 4: Choose your data collection methods
Questionnaires Interviews
•More common in quantitative •More common in qualitative
research research
•May be distributed online, by •Conducted by researcher in
phone, by mail or in person person, by phone or online
•Usually offer closed questions •Usually allow participants to
with limited options answer in their own words
•Consistent data can be collected •Ideas can be explored in-depth
from many people with a smaller group (e.g., 
focus group)
 Step 5: Plan your data collection procedures

As well as deciding on your methods, you need to plan exactly

how you’ll use these methods to collect data that’s consistent,
accurate, and unbiased.

Planning systematic procedures is especially important in

quantitative research, where you need to precisely define your
variables and ensure your measurements are high in reliability
and validity.
 Step 5: Plan your data collection procedures
Operationalization
Some variables, like height or age, are easily measured. But
often you’ll be dealing with more abstract concepts, like
satisfaction, anxiety, or competence.

Operationalization means turning these fuzzy ideas into

measurable indicators.
 Step 5: Plan your data collection procedures
If you’re using OBSERVATIONS, which events or actions
will you count?

Example

To measure student participation in an online course, you

could record the number of times students ask and answer
questions.
 Step 5: Plan your data collection procedures
If you’re using SURVEYS, which questions will you ask and
what range of responses will be offered?

Example

To measure teachers’ satisfaction with online learning tools,

you could create a questionnaire with a 5-point rating scale.
Step 5: Plan your data collection procedures
You may also choose to use or adapt existing materials
designed to measure the concept you’re interested in—for
example, questionnaires or inventories whose reliability and
validity have already been established.
Step 5: Plan your data collection procedures

RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY

Reliability means your results can be consistently
reproduced, while validity means that you’re actually
measuring the concept you’re interested in.
 Step 5: Plan your data collection procedures
Reliability Validity
•Does your measure capture •Do your measurement
the same concept consistently materials test all aspects of the
over time? concept? (content validity)
•Does it produce the same •Does it correlate with
results in different contexts? different measures of the same
•Do all questions measure the concept? (criterion validity)
exact same concept?
Step 6: Decide on your data analysis strategies
Quantitative data analysis
In quantitative research, you’ll most likely use some form of statistical analysis.
With statistics, you can summarize your sample data, make estimates, and test
hypotheses.
Using descriptive statistics, you can summarize your sample data in terms of:
•The distribution of the data (e.g., the frequency of each score on a test)
•The central tendency of the data (e.g., the mean to describe the average score)
•The variability of the data (e.g., the standard deviation to describe how spread
out the scores are)
Step 6: Decide on your data analysis strategies
Qualitative data analysis
In qualitative research, your data will usually be very dense
with information and ideas. Instead of summing it up in
numbers, you’ll need to comb through the data in detail,
interpret its meanings, identify patterns, and extract the parts
that are most relevant to your research question.
Two of the most common approaches to doing this are 
thematic analysis and discourse analysis.
Step 6: Decide on your data analysis strategies
Qualitative data analysis
Approach Characteristics
Thematic analysis •Focuses on the content of the data
•Involves coding and organizing the data to
identify key themes
Discourse analysis •Focuses on putting the data in context
•Involves analyzing different levels of
communication (language, structure, tone,
etc)
There are two types of
in-text citations in
APA
There are two types of in-text citations in APA
format: parenthetical and narrative.

Parenthetical citations include the author(s) and

the date of publication within parentheses.

Narrative citations intertwine the author as part

of the sentence with the date of publication (in
parentheses) following.