Neuro-Histology of Cerebrum

and Cerebellum

M.K. Rayyan

Human Anatomy Department,

Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences,
Federal University Dutse, Jigawa State.
 ORGANIZATION OF THE CENTRAL
NERVOUS SYSTEM

 The central nervous system consists of the brain

located in the cranial cavity and the spinal cord located
in the vertebral canal.

 The CNS is protected by the skull and vertebrae and is

surrounded by three connective tissue membranes
called meninges.

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 The brain and spinal cord essentially float in the
cerebrospinal fluid that occupies the space between
the two inner meningeal layers.

 The brain is further subdivided into the

 cerebrum,
 cerebellum, and
 brain stem that connects with the spinal cord.

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 In the brain, the gray matter forms an outer covering
or cortex; the white matter forms an inner core or
medulla.

 The cerebral cortex that forms the outermost layer of

the brain contains nerve cell bodies, axons, dendrites,
and central glial cells, and it is the site of synapses.
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 In a freshly dissected brains, the cerebral cortex has a
gray color, hence the name gray matter.

 In addition to the cortex, islands of gray matter called

nuclei are found in the deep portions of the cerebrum
and cerebellum.

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 The white matter contains only axons of nerve cells
plus the associated glial cells and blood vessels.

 These axons travel from one part of the nervous

system to another.

 Whereas many of the axons going to, or coming

from, a specific location are grouped into functionally
related bundles called tracts.

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 The demonstration of a tract in white matter of the
CNS requires a special procedure, such as the
destruction of cell bodies that contribute fibers to the
tract.
 The damaged fibers can be displayed by the use of
appropriate staining or labeling methods and then
traced.
 Even in the spinal cord, where the grouping of tracts
is most pronounced, there are no sharp boundaries
between adjacent tracts.
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 The cortex is a thin layer of neurons and their inner
connections, measuring few mm and contains 30
billion neurons

 The evolved cortex in mammals called neocortex

consists of 6 layers of neurons.

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 Structure of Neuron

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 Basic Neurone types

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 Types of cortex
 Neocortex
 More than 90 of the total cortical area
 6 layered structures
 Refered to as homogenic cortex
 Paleocortex
 Covers some part of telencephalon (olfactory area)
 Forms heterogenic cortex
 Archicortex
 The hippocampal formation
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 Neuron cell types
Two principal cell types are present
 Pyramidal cell
 Stellate cell
Others
 The cells of Martinotti
 Fusiform cells
 Horizontal cells of Cajal

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 Neuron cell types...

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 Pyramidal cells
 Pyramidal shaped cells bodies

 About 10 – 70 microns in
diamter

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 Pyramidal cells...
 Axon arises from the base
and the dendrite from the
apex

 The largest of the pyramidal

cells are called the betz cells

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 Functions of Pyramidal cells
 The apical dendrites of pyramidal cells are studded
with dendritic spines.

 There are numerous small projections that are

preferential site of synaptic contact

 It has been suggested that dendritic spines may be the

sites of synapses that are selectively modified as a
result of learning

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 Functions of Pyramidal cells...
 Most or all the pyramidal cells have long axons that
leaves the cortex to reach either other cortical areas or
to various subcortical sites

 Therefore pyramidal cells are the principal output

neurons

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 Stellate/granular cells
 These are the principal
interneurons of the cortex

 Comes in a wide assortment

of shapes

 They are typically small (less

than 10 micrometre)
multipolar neurons.

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 Function of stellate cells
 The short axons of stellate cells do not leave the
cortex

 Stellate cells are the principal interneurons of the

neocortex

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 Pyramidal and stellate cells

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 Cells of Martonotti
 Small polygonal cells
 Have very few short dendrites

 The axon extends towards the

surface and bifurcate to run
horizontally in most superficial
layers

 Forms synapses with the

pyramidal cells
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 Fusiform cells
 Spindle in shape
 They are oriented at right angle to
the cortex
 Axon arises from the side of the
cell body and passes superficially

 Dendrites extend from each end of

the cell body branching into
deeper and more superficial layers

 Functions are similar to that of

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 Horizontal cells of Cajal
(Retzius Cajal cells)
 Small and spindle in shaped
 Oriented parallel to the surface
 Least common cell type
 Found only in most superficial
layer
 Axons pass laterally to synapse
with dendrites of pyramidal cells
 They are prominent during
development, but disappear after
birth
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 Cerebrum

 The cerebrum is the principal portion of the brain and

contains the cell bodies of nerves that receive and
store sensory information,

 Nerves that control voluntary motor activity, and

nerves that integrate and coordinate the activity of
other nerves, as well as the nerves and neural
pathways that constitute memory.

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 The six layers of the cortex
 I: The plexiform layer (molecular layer)
 II: The small pyramidal cell (outer granular) layer
 III: The layer of medium pyramidal cells (layer of
outer pyramidal cells)

 IV: The granular layer (inner granular layer)

 V: The layer of large pyramidal cells (inner layer of
pyramidal cells)
 VI: The layer of polymorphic

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 Layers of cerebrum

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 In addition to pyramidal cells, granule cells, and fusiform
cells, two other cell types are also present in the cerebral
cortex but are not recognizable in this preparation:

 the horizontal cells of Cajal, which are present only in

layer I and send their processes laterally, and

 the cells of Martinotti, which send their axons toward

the surface (opposite to that of pyramidal cells).

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 Plexiform (molecular) layer
 consists largely of fibers, most
of which travel parallel to the
surface, and relatively few
cells, mostly neuroglial cells

 Most superficial layer

 Contains many dendritic and

axonal synapses with one
another
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 Plexiform layer...
 Sparse nuclei are seen
that belongs to neuglia

 Occational horizontal
cells of cajal are seen

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 Outer granular layer
 Also called the small •
pyramidal cell layer

 Dense population of small

pyramidal cells and
granule cells (stellate cells)

 Also contains various

axons and dendritic
connections
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 Pyramidal cell layer
 Also known as the layer of medium
•
pyramidal cells (or layer of outer
pyramidal cells)

 is not sharply demarcated from layer II.

However, the pyramidal cells are
somewhat larger and posses a typical
pyramidal shape.
 Large pyramidal cells are present in
further deeper layers
 Martinotti cells are also present
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 Inner granular layer
 The granular layer (or inner •
granular layer) is
characterized by the
presence of many small
granule cells (stellate cells).

 Densely parked stellate cells

are present

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 Ganglionic layer
 The layer of large pyramidal
cells (or inner layer of
pyramidal cells)

 Large pyramidal cells

 Few stellate cells
 Cells of martinotti

 Huge pyramidal Betz cells

of motor cortex are present.
Hence the name ganglion
cell layer
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 Multiform cell layer
 The layer of polymorphic cells
contains cells with diverse •shapes,
many of which have a spindle of
fusiform shape. These cells are
called fusiform cells.

 All morphological forms are

found in this layer.

 Fusiform cells in deeper and other

cells are present superficially in
this layer
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 CEREBELLUM
“LITTLE BRAIN”,

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 THE CEREBELLUM
 The cerebellum, which stands for “little brain”,
is a structure of the central nervous system.
Anatomical Location
 The cerebellum is located at the back of the brain,
immediately inferior to the occipital and temporal
lobes, and within the posterior cranial fossa.

 It is separated from these lobes by the tentorium

cerebelli, a tough layer of dura mater.

 It lies at the same level of and posterior to the pons,

from which it is separated by the fourth ventricle.
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 The cerebellum consists of two hemispheres which are
connected by the vermis, a narrow midline area.

 Like other structures in the central nervous system, the

cerebellum consists of grey matter and white matter:

 Grey matter – located on the surface of the cerebellum.

It is tightly folded, forming the cerebellar cortex.

 White matter – located underneath the cerebellar

cortex. Embedded in the white matter are the four
cerebellar nuclei (the dentate, emboliform, globose,
and fastigi nuclei). Neuro-Histology of Cerebrum and
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 Functions of Cerebellum
 Coordination, precision and timing of movements,
 Motor learning function
 Cerebellum utilizes somatosensory information
 Cerebellum utilizes vestibular information
 Cerebellum utilizes visual information
 activates vermis (midway – head area) – participation in movement toward the
stimulus
 flocculus controls the eye movements

 Cerebellum utilizes auditory information

 activates vermis (midway – head area) – participation in movement toward the
stimulus
 Cerebellum utilizes olfactory information
 Cerebellum utilizes visceral information
 Cerebellum is involved in cognitive functions
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Neuro Histology of the Cerebellum

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 Cerebellum Cortex
 Pia matter
 Cortex and white matter
 Cortex 3 layers
 Types of cells
 Stellate cells
 Basket
 Purkinje
 Granule
 Golgi type ll
 White fibers
 Climbing fibres
 Mossy fibers

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 Neuron cell types of Cerebellum
 Purkinje Cells (Pkj)

 Basket Cells (BC)

 Golgi Cells (G)

 Granule Cells

 Stellate Cells
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 Purkinje cells
 These cells are characteristic of
the cerebellum.

 Each possesses numerous

dendrites (D) that arborize in
the molecular layer. Jan Evangelista Purkyně (Czech) (1787 – 1869)

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 Purkinje cells provide the primary output from the cerebellar cortex.

 These unique neurons have their cell bodies in the Purkinje cell layer
and have dendrites that fan out.

 The axons of Purkinje cells project ipsilaterally to the deep

cerebellar nuclei, especially the dentate nucleus, where they form
inhibitory synapses.

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 Purkinje cells...

 The Purkinje cell has a

single axon that is not
usually evident in H&E
sections.

 This nerve fiber

represents the beginning
of the outflow from the
cerebellum.

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 Basket Cells (BC )

 They are multipolar cells

with multiple branching
dendrites, which are
dilated and knotty.

 Basket cells synapse on

the cell bodies of purkinje
cells and make inhibitory
synapse with purkinje cell

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 Basket Cells (BC )...
 in molecular layers: inhibitory interneuron
 terminal axons run horizontally
 collaterals form a basket-like nest in which
Purkinje cells rest
 synapses at axon hillock
 are located in the molecular layer.
 These cells receive excitatory inputs from the
parallel fibers and project back to Purkinje cells,
which they inhibit.
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 Golgi Cells
 Located in the granular
layer and within the
granule cell layer.

 The Golgi cells send

their axons back to the
granule cells, which
they inhibit.

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 Golgi Cells...
http://www.neuroscience.cam.ac.uk/
uploadedFiles/mostofi_phptTaihc.jpg

 inhibitory interneuron in the granular layer

 Short axon synapses onto the dendrite of granule cells
 Golgi cell acts by altering the mossy fibre - granule cell
synaps

 Receive excitatory input from mossy fibers, also synapsing

on granule cells

 Dendrites synapses on parallel fibers, which are long granule

cell axons

 Thereby this circuitry allows for feed-forward and feed-back

inhibition of granule Neuro-Histology
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 Granule Cells

 with cell bodies located in the granular layer of the cerebellar

cortex, are the only excitatory neurons in the cerebellar
cortex.

 The granule cells send their axons upward, into the molecular
layer, where they bifurcate in a T-like manner to become the
parallel fibers which form excitatory synapses on these
dendrites.

 Glutamate appears to be the neurotransmitter at these

synapses
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 Stellate Cells

 synapses on Purkinje cell

dendrites
 synapses on Purkinje cell
body
 inhibitory interneuron

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 Layers of cerebellar cortex

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 Cerebellum, H&E ×40.
 The outermost layer, the
molecular layer (Mol), is
lightly stained with eosin.
 The granular layer (Gr ), which
stains intensely with
hematoxylin.
 Together, these two layers
constitute the cortex of the
cerebellum.
 Deep in the granular layer is
another region that stains
lightly with H&E and, except
for location, shows no
distinctive histologic features.
This is the white matter (WM).
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 Cerebellum, H&E ×400.
 The figure shows relatively
few neuron cell bodies, those
of the basket cells (BC ), in
the molecular layer; they are
widely removed from each
other and, at best, show only a
small amount of cytoplasm
surrounding the nucleus.

 In contrast, the granular layer

presents an overall spotted-
blue appearance due to the
staining of numerous small
nuclei with hematoxylin.

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 The specimen in this figure has Cerebellum, silver stain ×40.
been stained with a silver
procedure.
 Such procedures do not always
color the specimen evenly, as
do H&E.
 The main advantage of this
silver preparation is that the
white matter (WM) can be
recognized as being composed
of fibers; they have been
blackened by the silver-staining
procedure.
 The pia mater (Pia) and
cerebellar blood vessels are
also evident in the preparation.
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 At higher magnification, the Cerebellum, silver stain ×400.
Purkinje cell bodies (Pkj )
stand out as the most
distinctive and conspicuous
neuronal cell type of the
cerebellum, and numerous
dendritic branches (D) can
be seen.
 The arrow indicates a T turn
characteristic of the turn
made by axons of granule
cells.
 As these axonal branches
travel horizontally, they
make synaptic contact with
numerous Purkinje cells.
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 SUMMARY OF CELLS ARRANGEMENT
IN THE LAYERS

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 Clinical Correlations

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 demyelinating diseases
In general, demyelinating diseases are characterized by preferential
damage to the myelin sheath.

Clinical symptoms of these diseases are related to decreased or lost

ability to transmit electrical impulses along nerve fibers.
Several immune-mediated diseases affect the myelin sheath.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a disease that attacks myelin in the CNS.

MS is also characterized by preferential damage to myelin, which
becomes detached from the axon and is eventually destroyed.
 In addition, destruction of oligodendroglia, which are responsible
for the synthesis and maintenance of myelin, occurs.
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 Parkinson’s disease
 Parkinson’s disease is a slowly progressive neurologic disorder
caused by the loss of dopamine (DA)-secreting cells in the
substantia nigra and basal ganglia of the brain.

 On the microscopic level, degeneration of neurons in the substantia

nigra is very evident.
 This region loses its typical pigmentation, and an increase in the
number of glial cells is noticeable (gliosis).

 In addition, nerve cells in this region display characteristic

intracellular inclusions called Lewy bodies, which represent
accumulation of intermediate neurofilaments in association with
proteins -synuclein and ubiquitin.
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 LEWY BODIES

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 Brain plasticity, or Neuroplasticity

 is the ability for the brain to recover and restructure

itself.

 This adaptive potential of the nervous system allows

the brain to recover after disorders or injuries and to
reduce the effects of altered structures due to
pathologies such as
 Multiple Sclerosis,
 Parkinson's disease,
 cognitive deterioration,
 Alzheimer's, etc.
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 THANK YOU

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