XI PHYSICS

CHAPTER 2
UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS
Name of Teacher : Shankar Kataria
Learning outcomes
► Define physical quantities and understand the reference (Unit) used for measuring the
quantity.
► Define Fundamental quantities and Derived Quantities.
► Define Fundamental Units and Derived Units.
►Understand the System of Units.
►Understand measurement of Length, Mass and Time.
►Understand the Errors in measurement.
►Understand the Combination of Errors.
►Understand the Significant Figures.
►Understanding the Mathematical Operations with regards to Significant Figures.
►Understand the Dimensions of physical quantity.
►Understand the Dimensional Formulae and Dimensional Equations.
►Understand the Application of Dimensional Analysis.
►Understanding the Limitations of Dimensional Analysis
 CONTENTS
Need for Measurement

Physical Quantity : Fundamental Quantities and Derived Quantities

Fundamental Units and Derived Units

Unit : Standard Unit Characteristics

System of Units

Order of Magnitude

Measurement of Length : Small Distances and Large Distances

Measurement of Mass : Inertial Mass and Gravitational Mass

Measurement of Time

Errors in Measurement and Types of Errors

Absolute Error, Relative Error, Percentage Error

Accuracy and Precision

Significant Figures
Dimensions of physical quantity, Dimensional Formulae and Dimensional Equations

Dimensional Analysis – Applications

Dimensional Analysis – Limitations

NEED OF MEASUREMENT
Physics is an exact science which gives an accurate knowledge about the nature and the
natural phenomena. For a precise description of any such phenomenon, measurement
of quantity involved is essential.
The comparison of any physical quantity with its standard unit is called measurement.
The need for measuring and comparing things is a very important part of physics. As
measurements are important, rules are set in place to ensure that measuring is
consistent. Measurement is not arbitrary however: it is based on units. Scientists
measure and create things to meet standards and measurements to extreme accuracy
so that measurements can be found out precisely. Measurements are an important part
of comparing things, as they provide the basis on comparing objects to other objects.
Measurement is perhaps one of the most fundamental concepts in physics. Without the
ability to measure, it would be difficult for scientists to conduct experiments or form
theories.
The word “measurement” comes from the Greek word “metron,” which means “limited
proportion.” Measurement is a technique in which properties of an object are determined
by comparing them to a standard.
Physical Quantities :
All the quantities in terms of which laws of physics are described and which are
measurable are called ‘physical quantities’.

Fundamental Quantities :
The physical quantities which can be treated as independent of other physical
quantities are called ‘fundamental quantities’. These are not usually defined in terms of
other quantities. These quantities are often termed as “base quantities”.
Examples: Length, Mass, Time, etc.

Derived Quantities :
The physical quantities which are defined in terms of fundamental quantities are called
‘derived quantities’.
Examples: Speed, velocity, acceleration, force, momentum, torque, energy, pressure,
density, thermal conductivity, resistance, magnetic moment, etc.
Unit :A definite amount of a physical quantity is taken as its standard unit.
To express the measurement of a physical quantity we need to know two things :
(i) The unit in which the quantity is measured
(ii) The numerical value or the magnitude of the quantity i.e. the number of times that
unit is contained in the given physical quantity.
Thus Measure of physical quantity = Numerical value of the quantity x size of the unit
Q = nu
e.g. length of a table = 5 m = 500 cm
Clearly smaller the size of the unit, larger is the numerical value associated with the physical quantity.
Thus the numerical value (n) is inversely proportional to the size (u) of the unit.
n ∝ 1/u ⇒ nu = constant
If n1 and n2 are numerical values of a physical quantity corresponding to the units u1 and
u2, then
n1u1 = n2u2
Standart Unit :
The standard amount of a physical quantity chosen o measure the physical quantity of
the same kind is called a physical unit.

Characteristics of a Standard Unit(Physical Unit) :

(i) It should be well defined
(ii) It should be of convenient size.
(iii) It should not change with time.
(iv) It should be easily reproducible.
(v) It should be imperishable or indestructible.
(vi) It should be internationally accepted.
(vii)It should be easily accessible.
 Fundamental Units :
The units of fundamental quantities are called fundamental units or base units.
These can neither be derived from one another, nor they can be further resolved into
more simpler units.
The units of fundamental quantities such as mass, length etc are fundamental units.
e.g. The unit of mass is kilogram(kg) and length is metre(m).

Derived Units :
All the other units which can be expressed in terms of the fundamental or base units are
called derived units.
e.g. Area = length x breadth
Unit of Area = unit of length x unit of breadth = m x m = m2
Thus the unit of area is derived unit as it has been expressed in terms of fundamental
unit of length.
SYSTEMS OF UNITS
Several systems of units have been employed for describing measurements of
various physical quantities.
(i) cgs System : It is known as Gaussian system and is based on ‘centimeter’(cm),
‘gram’(g) and ‘second’(s) as fundamental units of length, mass and time
respectively.
(ii) fps System : It is the British system which used ‘foot’ (ft), ‘pound’ (lb) and
‘second’(s) as fundamental units of length, mass and time respectively.
(iii) mks System : It uses ‘metre’(m), ‘kilogram’(kg) and ‘second’ (s) as fundamental
units of length, mass and time respectively. It is also known as metric system.
(iv) SI System : It is the International System of units. SI is the abbreviation of
‘Systeme Internationale d’ Unites’ which is the French equivalent for
‘International System of Units’. It is the modernized and extended form of the
metric system. This was adopted by eleventh General Conference of Weights
and Measures in 1960.
 BASIC SI QUANTITIES AND UNITS

Supplementary SI Units
Supplementary Quantity Basic Unit Symbol

Plane angle Radian rad or c

Solid angle Steradian sr

DEFINITION OF BASIC UNITS

1. Metre(m) : One meter is defined as the length of the path travelled by light in
vacuum during a time interval of (1/299792458) of a second.

2. Kilogram(kg) : Kilogram was originally defined in 1795 as mass of one litre of

water. In 1889, One kilogram is the mass of prototype cylinder of platinum iridium
alloy preserved at International Bureau of Weights and Measures at Severs France.
In 2019 kilogram was redefined by taking the fixed numerical value of the Planck
constant ‘h’ to be 6.662607015 x 10-34 when expressed in the unit Js, which is equal
to kgm2s-1, where the metre and the second are defined in terms of ‘c’.

Platinum Iridium cylinder preserved at International Bureau

of Weights and Measures, at Severs near Paris in France.
3. Second : One second is the duration of 9192631770 periods of the radiation
corresponding to the transition between two hyperfine levels of the ground state of
cesium -133 atom.

An atomic clock

4. Ampere(A) : One ampere is that constant current which when flown in two
straight parallel conductors of infinite length of negligible cross section and placed 1
metre apart in vacuum, would exert a force equal to 2 x 10-7 newton per meter of
length on each other.
5. Kelvin(K) : One kelvin is the fraction (1/273.16 ) of the thermodynamic
temperature of the triple point of water. The triple point of water is the temperature at
which water can coexist in all three states i.e. solid(ice), liquid (water) and
vapour(water vapour).

6. Candela(Cd) : One candela is the luminous intensity in a given direction, of a

source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency 540x1012 hertz and that has
a radiant intensity of (1/683) watt per steradian in that direction.

7. Mole(mol or μ) : One more is that amount of a substance which contains as

many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012kg (12g) of carbon – 12
isotope.
Plane angle
Plane angle ‘dθ’ is the ratio of arc ‘ds’ to the radius ‘r’. Its SI unit is ‘radian’.

ds
r
ds
dθ =
dθ r
r
O

Supplementary Units
(1)Radian (rad or c) : It is defined as the plane angle subtended at the centre of a circle by
an arc equal in length to the radius of the circle.

θ (in rad) = Length of Arc/ Length of Radius = l/r

Suppose a circle has radius 1m then an arc of length 1m would subtend the angle of 1 radian
at its centre.
Solid angle :Solid angle ‘dΩ’ is the ratio of the intercepted area ‘dA’ of the spherical
surface described at the apex ‘O’ as the centre, to the square of its radius ‘r’. Its SI unit
is ‘steradian’.
dA
r
dA
dΩ =
r r2
dΩ

(2) Steradian (sr) : It is defined as the solid angle subtended at the centre of a
sphere by a surface of the sphere equal in area to that of a square having each side
equal to the radius of the sphere.
Ω(in sr) = Surface Area/ (Radius)2
Advantages of SI system

(i) SI is a coherent system of units.

(ii) SI is a rational system of units.

(iii) SI is a metric system.

(iv) SI is an absolute system of units.

(v) Si is an internationally accepted system of units.

Order of Magnitude

The Order of Magnitude of a physical quantity is that power of ten which is closest to its

magnitude. To determine the order of magnitude of a number N, we express it as

N = n x 10x

If 0.5<n≤ 5 , then x will be the order of magnitude of N.

Some Practical Units :
A. Small Distances
1. 1 fermi =10-15 m
2. 1 X-ray unit = 10-13 m
3. 1 Angstrom = 1 Å = 10-10 m
4. 1 Nanometre = 1 nm = 10-9 m
5. 1 Micron = 1 μm = 10-6 m
B. Large Distances
1. The average separation between the Earth and
the sun is called one astronomical unit.

1 AU = 1.496 x 1011 m.
2. Light Year(ly) :
The distance travelled by light in vacuum in one year is called light year.
1 light year = 9.46 x 1015 m.

3. Parallactic Second (parsec) :

The distance at which an arc of length of one astronomical unit subtends an angle of
one second at a point is called parsec.
1 parsec = 3.08 x 1016 m
If θ = 1 second and b = 1 AU
Then S = 1 parsec
Prefixes
►Prefixes simplify the writing of very large or very small quantities

Prefix Abbreviation Power

nano n 10−9
micro μ 10−6
milli m 10−3
centi c 10−2
deci d 10−1
kilo k 103
mega M 106
giga G 109
 MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH

DIRECT METHOD : (i) Metre scale (ii) Vernier Callipers (iii) Screw gauge
• Example:
i) A metre rod can be used to measure distance as small as 10-3 m or 0.1 cm or 1
mm.
ii) A Vernier Callipers can be used to measure as small as 10-4 m or 0.01 cm or
0.001 mm.
iii) A screw gauge is used to measure as small as 10-5 m or 0.001cm or 0.0001 mm.
(iv) A spherometre is used to measure the radius of curved surfaces as small as
10-5 m or 0.001cm or 0.0001 mm.
• Measuring tape is used to measure relatively long lengths
• For shorter length, a metre rule or a shorter rule will be more accurate
• Correct way to read the scale on a ruler
• Position eye perpendicularly at the mark on the scale to avoids parallax errors
• Another reason for error: object not align or arranged parallel to the scale
Table shows the range and precision of some measuring instruments

Instrument Range of Accuracy

measurement

Measuring tape 0−5m 0.1 cm

Metre rule 0−1m 0.1 cm

Vernier calipers 0 − 15 cm 0.01 cm

Micrometer screw gauge 0 − 2.5 cm 0.01 mm

Vernier Calipers
• A Vernier Callipers consists of a Main Scale with 1 division measuring 1 mm.
• It consists of a Vernier Scale whose 10 divisions may be equal to 9 divisions on main
scale.
• The least count of a measuring instrument is the minimum measurement that can be
made by it.
• A Vernier Callipers has a least count of 0.1 mm or 0.01 cm.
• It may be used to measure the diameter of spherical bodies, dimensions of a
rectangular slab or depth of a cylindrical vessel.
How to read a Vernier Callipers
• The length to be measured is between 2.4 cm and 2.5 cm long.
• The first division of Vernier Scale is between 2.4 cm and 2.5 cm. Hence the Main
Scale Reading (MSR) is 2.4 cm.
• The 9th division of the Vernier scale is making a straight line with the Main Scale
division(any). Hence the reading of Vernier Scale is 0.09 cm (0.01 x 9).
• Thus the total reading on Vernier Callipers is (2.4 + 0.09) cm = 2.49 cm.
Screw Gauge
• Screw Gauge is used to measure diameter of fine wires, thickness of paper and small
lengths.
• The screw gauge consists of a main scale and a circular scale.
• There are 50 or 100 divisions on circular scale.
• The horizontal distance moved by the circular scale in one rotation is called pitch of
screw gauge.
• The least count of screw gauge is 0.01 mm or 0.001 cm.
INDIRECT METHOD
1. Parallax Method
This method is used to measure the distance of planets and stars from earth.
Parallax : Hold a pen in front of your eyes and look at the pen by closing the right eye
and ‘then the left eye. What do you observe? The position of the pen changes with
respect to the background. This relative shift in the position of the pen (object) w.r.t.
background is called parallax.
Parallax : Parallax is the apparent shift in the position of an object with respect to
another object when we shift our eye sidewise.
The following indirect methods may be used to measure very large distances i.e.
the distance between celestial objects:

 
2. Parallax Method used for determining the distance of nearby star or Moon

 
 
SOME OTHER METHODS OF DETERMINING LARGE LENGTH (DISTANCE)

LASER METHOD : Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation

RADAR METHOD : Radio Detection and Ranging

  Here c is the velocity of light, t is the time elapsed between sending
and receiving of laser signals.

SONAR METHOD : Sound Navigation and Ranging

 

Here v is the velocity of sound (ultrasound) , t is the time elapsed between sending and
receiving of sound.
Estimation of Very Small Distances
1. Using Electron Microscope:
For visible light the range of wavelengths is from about 4000 Å to 7000 Å
(1 angstrom = 1 Å = 10-10 m).
Hence an optical microscope cannot resolve particles with sizes smaller than this.
Electron beams can be focused by properly designed electric and magnetic fields.
The resolution of such an electron microscope is limited finally by the fact that electrons
can also behave as waves.
The wavelength of an electron can be as small as a fraction of an angstrom.
Such electron microscopes with a resolution of 0.6 Å have been built. They can almost
resolve atoms and molecules in a material.
In recent times, tunneling microscopy has been developed in which again the limit of
resolution is better than an angstrom. It is possible to estimate the sizes of molecules. 
2. Avogadro’s Method:
A simple method for estimating the molecular size. Let us find the molecular size of oleic
acid.

Oleic acid is a soapy liquid with large molecular size of the order of 10–9 m.

The idea is to first form mono-molecular layer of oleic acid on water surface.

We dissolve 1 cm3 of oleic acid in alcohol to make a solution of 20 cm3 (ml). Then we
take 1 cm3 of this solution and dilute it to 20 cm3, using alcohol.
1
So, the concentration of the solution is cm3 of oleic acid per cm3 of solution.
20 x 20
Next we lightly sprinkle some lycopodium powder on the surface of water in a large
trough and we put one drop of this solution in the water.

The oleic acid drop spreads into a thin, large and roughly circular film of molecular
thickness on water surface.
Then, we quickly measure the diameter of the thin film to get its area A.
Suppose we have dropped ‘n’ drops in the water.
Initially, we determine the approximate volume of each drop (V cm3).
Volume of n drops of solution = nV cm3
1
Amount of oleic acid in this solution = nV cm3
20 x 20

This solution of oleic acid spreads very fast on the surface of water and forms a very thin
layer of thickness ‘t’.

If this spreads to form a film of area ‘A’ cm2, then the thickness of the film
nV
Volume of the film or t= cm
t= 20 x 20 x A
Area of the film

If we assume that the film has mono-molecular thickness, then this becomes the size or
diameter of a molecule of oleic acid. The value of this thickness comes out to be of the
order of 10–9m.
Range and Order of Lengths (Llongest : Lshortest = 1041 : 1)
S.No Size of the object or distance Length (m)
1 Size of proton 10-15
2 Size of atomic nucleus 10-14
3 Size of the Hydrogen atom 10-10
4 Length of a typical virus 10-8
5 Wavelength of a light 10-7
6 Size of the red blood corpuscle 10-5
7 Thickness of a paper 10-4
8 Height of the Mount Everest from sea level 104
9 Radius of the Earth 107
10 Distance of the moon from the earth 108
11 Distance of the Sun from the earth 1011
12 Distance of the Pluto from the Sun 1013
13 Size of our Galaxy 1021
14 Distance of the Andromeda galaxy 1022
15 Distance of the boundary of observable universe 1026
MEASUREMENT OF MASS
The SI unit of mass is kilogram (kg).

The prototypes of the International standard kilogramme supplied by the International Bureau of Weights
and Measures (BIPM) are available in many other laboratories of different countries.

In India, this is available at the National Physical Laboratory (NPL), New Delhi.

While dealing with atoms and molecules, the kilogram is an inconvenient unit. In this case, there is an
important standard unit of mass, called the unified atomic mass unit (amu) or (u), which has been established
for expressing the mass of atoms as
1 unified atomic mass unit = 1 u

One unified mass unit is equal to (1/12) of the mass of an atom of Carbon-12 isotope ( 12C6 ) including the mass
of electrons.  

1 u(1amu) = 1.66 × 10–27 kg

Methods of measuring mass

1. Large masses in the Universe like planets, stars, etc., based on Newton’s law of
gravitation can be measured by using gravitational method.
2. Inertial Mass : The mass of a body which determines its inertia in translator motion is
called its inertial mass. It is defined by Newton's second law of motion and is equal to
the ratio of the external force applied to the acceleration produced in the body. i.e.
F = ma
Or m = F/a
3. Gravitational Mass : The mass of a body which determines the gravitational pull acting
upon it due to the earth is called gravitational mass. It is defined by Newton’s Law of
Gravitation.
i.e.
F = GMm/R2 or m = FR2/GM

The gravitational mass of the body can be measured by using a physical balance.
 Order of Masses

S.No. Object Mass (kg)

1 Electron 10-30
2 Proton 10-27
3 Uranium atom 10-25
4 Red blood cell 10-13
5 Dust particle 10-9
6 Rain drop 10-6
7 Mosquito 10-5
8 Grape 10-3
9 Human 102
10 Automobile 103
11 Boeing 747 108
12 Moon 1023
13 Earth 1025
14 Sun 1030
15 Milky way galaxy 1041
16 Observable Universe 1055
MEASUREMENT OF TIME 
According to Einstein “Time is simply what a clock reads. Any
phenomena that repeats itself after equal intervals of time can be
used as a standard time
Examples of such phenomena are
(i) Beating of human heart.
(ii) Oscillations of a pendulum
(iii)Rotation of earth on its own axis.
(iv)Revolution of earth around sun.
(v) Vibrations of quartz crystal in quartz wristwatches.
(vi)Period of vibrations of cesium -133 atom.
In the cesium atomic clock, the second is taken as the time
needed for 9,192,631,770 vibrations of the radiation
corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels
of the ground state of cesium-133 atom.
A cesium atomic clock is used at the National Physical
Laboratory (NPL), New Delhi to maintain the Indian standard of
time.
Advantages of defining second in terms of period of radiation from Cs-
133 atom

• Cesium atomic clock has high accuracy of 1 part in 10 13 .

• It can be easily reproduced in any good laboratory.

• It is not affected by physical conditions of pressure and temperature.

• It is imperishable.
Techniques of Measuring Time

• Electrical Oscillators.

• Electronic Oscillators : Junction Transistors

• Quartz Clocks : Quartz is the most elastic substance available.

• Atomic Clocks

• Decay of elementary particles

• Radioactive dating : Carbon dating is used to estimate the age of fossils.

 Range and Order of Time Intervals (Range= 1041 : 1)
S.No. Event Time Intervals (s)
1 Life span of most unstable particle 10-24
2 Time required for light to cross a nuclear distance 10-22
3 Period of X-rays 10-19
4 Period of atomic vibrations 10-15
5 Period of light wave 10-15
6 Life time of an excited atom 10 -8
7 Period of radio wave 10-6
8 Period of sound wave 10-3
9 Wink of eye 10-1
10 Time between successive human heart beats 100
11 Travel time for light from the Moon to the Earth 100
12 Travel time for light from the Sun to the Earth 102
13 Time period of a satellite 104
14 Rotation period of the Earth 105
15 Rotation and revolution periods of the Moon 106
16 Revolution period of the Earth 107
17 Travel time for light from the nearest star 108
18 Average human life span 109
19 Age of Egyptian pyramids 1011
20 Time since dinosaurs became extinct 1015
21 Age of the Universe 1017
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Types of Systematic Errors

(a) Instrumental errors: The instrumental errors that arise due to imperfect design or
calibration of the measuring instrument due to which the instrument may have zero
error.

Example:

(i) The temperature graduations of a thermometer may be inadequately calibrated (it

may read 102 °C as the boiling point of water whereas it should read 100 °C);

(ii) In a vernier callipers the zero mark of vernier scale may not coincide with the zero
mark of the main scale;

• (iii) An ordinary metre scale there may be nine divisions in between two centimeter
marks whereas there should be ten divisions.
(b) Imperfection in experimental technique or procedure:
These errors arise due to the limitations of the experimental arrangement.
For Example : When we measure the temperature of a human body by a thermometer
placed under the tongue it will always give a temperature lower than the actual value of
the body temperature due to some loss of heat.
 (c) Personal errors:
The personal errors arise due to an individual’s mistake, lack of proper setting of the
apparatus or carelessness in taking observations without taking proper precautions.
 Example:
Suppose while reading a scale you do not place your eyes parallel to the reading so error
arises or you write a different measurement than actual measurement.
(d) Error due to external causes
These errors arise due to the change in external conditions like pressure, temperature
etc.
Systematic errors can be minimized by
(i) improving experimental techniques,
(ii) selecting better instruments and
(iii)Taking Precautions while performing experiments.  
II. Random errors
 
III. Least count error

Least count:
The smallest value that can be measured by the measuring instrument is called its least
count.
The least count error is the error associated with the resolution of the instrument.
For example if you are told to measure mass of an object whose standard value is 2.345
g . You choose an instrument with least count 0.1 g then you would not be able to give
the correct answer as your answers will be either 2.3 g or 2.4 g and if you take the
instrument with least count 0.01 g then also your answer will not come accurate as it
may come 2.34 g or 2.35 g . But if you choose an instrument with least count 0.001 g
then you would be able to give the exact measurement i.e. 2.345 g.
There fore least count error can be minimized by choosing an appropriate instrument
with proper least count.
1. Absolute Error
The difference between the true value and the measured value of a quantity is called absolute error.

If a1 , a2, a3 ,…, an are the measured values of any quantity ‘a’ in an experiment performed n times, then
the arithmetic mean of these values is called the true value (am) of the quantity.

• The absolute error in each measured value is given by

Δa1 = am ~ a1 (difference in the observed value and mean value)
Δa2 = am  ~ a1
………….
Δam = Δam  ~ Δan

2. Mean Absolute Error

The arithmetic mean of the magnitude of absolute errors in all the measurement is called mean absolute error.
3. Relative Error
The ratio of mean absolute error to the true value is called relative

4. Percentage Error
The relative error expressed in percentage is called percentage error.
Propagation of Error
(i) Error in Addition or Subtraction
Let x = a + b or x = a – b
If the measured values of two quantities a and b are (a ± Δa and (b ± Δb), then
maximum absolute error in their addition or subtraction.
Δx = ±(Δa + Δb)
Rule:
When two quantities are added or subtracted, the absolute error in the final result is the sum of the absolute
errors in the individual quantities.

For example : Two resistors R1 = 100±3Ω and R2 = 200±4Ω are connected in series.
What is the equivalent resistance?
Ans. Equivalent resistance R = R1 + R2 = (100±3Ω )+ (200±4Ω )
= (300 ± 7)Ω
 (ii) Error in Multiplication or Division
Let x = a x b or x = (a/b).
If the measured values of a and b are (a ± Δa) and (b ± Δb), then maximum relative
error in x will be given as

Rule : When two quantities are multiplied, the relative error in the final result is the sum of the relative errors
of the individual quantities.

Rule : When two quantities are divided, the relative error in the final result is the sum of the relative errors of
the individual quantities.
Error due to the power of a measured quantity :

• Z = A2, then

ΔZ / Z = (ΔA / A) + (ΔA / A) = 2 (ΔA / A)

• If P = Aa Bb / Cc D1/d, then

the fractional error in P will be expressed as

ΔP / P = a (ΔA / A) + b (ΔB / B) + c (ΔC / C) + (1/d) (ΔD / D)

• The fractional error in a physical quantity raised to the power is the power times the
fractional error in the individual quantity.
Accuracy and Precision
• Accuracy : It refers to the closeness of a measurement to the true value of the physical quantity.
e.g. we know that refractive index of water is 1.33
Two students A and B found the refractive index of water by an experiment as 1.34 and 1.36
Which is more accurate A or B
• Precision : It refers to the resolution or the limit to which the quantity is measured. Precision is
determined by the least count of the measuring instrument. The smaller the least count, greater
is the precision.
e.g. Suppose we ask three students to measure the mass of piece of metal whose mass is known
to be 0.520 g.
They obtain the following values
Studen Measurement 1 Measurement Measurement 3 Average Mass Who is most accurate and precise?
t 2
Student A is neither accurate nor
A 0.52 g 0.51 g 0.50 g 0.51g precise.
Student B is precise but not accurate.
B 0.516 g 0.515 g 0.514 g 0.515 g
Student C is precise and accurate.
C 0.521 g 0.520 g 0.520 g 0.520 g
ILLUSTRATION OF ACCURACY AND PRECISION

ACCURACY
The accuracy of a measurement is a measure of how
close the measured value is to the true of the
quantity

PRECISION
Precision tells us to what resolution or limit the quantity
is measured.
Example:
 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES(DIGITS)
Definition : The significant figures are normally those digits in a measured quantity
which are known reliably or about which we have confidence in our measurement plus
one additional digit that is uncertain.
The rules for determining the significant figures are
i) All non- zero digits are significant figure.
e.g. 123 has three significant figures,
1234 has four significant figures
(ii) All zero between two non-zero digits are significant.
e.g. 12305 has five significant figures.
(iii) All zeros to the right of a non-zero digit but to the left of an understood decimal point
are not significant. But such zeros are significant if they come from a measurement.
e.g. 86400 has three significant digits but the measurement 86400 s has five significant
digits.
e.g. 2400 has significant figures = 2
2400 kg has significant figures = 4
(iv) All zeros to the right of a non-zero digit but to the left of a decimal point are
significant.
e.g. 45600.00 has five significant digits but if it is a measurement 45600.00 m has
seven significant figures.
(v) All zeros to the right of a decimal point but to the left of a non zero digit are
not significant
e.g. 0.123 and 0.00123 m has three significant digits.
(vi) The number of significant figures does not depend on the system of units.
e.g. 12.3 cm , 0.123 m and 0.000123 km all have three significant figures.
• When you are going from one system of units into another it is always better to
convert in terms of power of 10
For example
5 km = 5000 m = 500000 cm
In the above example the number of significant figures is changing 1km has one
significant figure, 1000 m has 3 significant figures and 100000cm has 6 significant
figures
To resolve the contradiction it is better to write
1 km = 5x 103 m = 5 x 105 cm
So now all the three measurements have same number of significant figures i.e.
ONE
RULES FOR ROUNDING OFF
The result of computation with approximate numbers, which contain more than one
uncertain digit, should be rounded off.
• If the digit to be dropped is smaller than 5, then the preceding digit is left unchanged.
e.g. 12.345 rounded upto 3 sf = 12.3
• If the digit to be dropped is greater than 5, then the preceding digit is increased by 1
e.g. 1234.56 rounded upto 5 sf = 1234.6
• If the digit to be dropped is 5 followed by a non zero digit then the preceding digit is
increased by 1
e.g. 123.451 rounded upto 4 sf = 123.5
• If the digit to be dropped is 5 followed by zero then the preceding digit is left unchanged
if it is even and increased by 1 if it is odd
e.g. 123.45 rounded off upto 4 sf = 123.4
123.35 rounded off upto 4 sf = 123.4
Problem
• Round off the following numbers as indicated ▣ SOLUTION

(i) 18.35 upto 3 sf digits (i) 18.4

(ii) 18.45 upto 3 sf digits (ii) 18.4

(iii) 148.351 upto 4 sf digits (iii) 148.4

(iv) 148.451 upto 4 sf digits (iv) 148.5

(v) 18957 upto 2 sf digits (v) 19000

(vi) 18.663 upto 3 sf digits (vi) 18.7

(vii) 318.33 upto 4 sf digits (vii) 318.3

(viii) 104.55 x 103 upto 4 sf digits (viii) 104.6 x 103

(ix) 104.65 x10-5 upto 4 sf digits (ix) 104.6 x 10-5

(x) 248337 upto 3 sf digits (x) 248000

Mathematical operations with respect to significant figures

• Addition or subtraction wrt significant figures :-

• In addition or subtraction , the result should be reported to the same number of decimal
places as that of the number with minimum number of decimal places.

• For ex: Add 334.5 kg and 23.45 kg

then Sum =334.5 kg + 23.43 kg = 357.93 kg

The result wrt proper significant figures is 357.9 kg
Rounding off the result upto ONE decimal digit.
Multiplication and division in significant figure(s.f.) :-
• In multiplication or division, the result should be reported to the same number of significant
figures as that of the number with minimum of significant figures.
e.g. Each side of a cube is 7.203 m. What is the volume of the cube with respect to s.f.?
Solution : Volume of cube = (side)3
= (7.203)3
= 373.714754 m3
= 373.7 m3
Rounding of the result upto four significant figures as in the original number.
e.g. Multiply 2.5 m x 1.50 m x 5.00 m
Solution : (2.5 x1.50 x 5.00 ) m3 = 18.75 m3
= 19 m3
Numerical Example :
The length , breath and thickness of a metal sheet are 4.234m , 1.005m and 2.01cm respectively give the
area and volume of the sheet to correct significant figure.
Ans – L = 4.234m
B = 1.005m
Thickness = 2.01cm = 2.01 x 10-2
Area of metal sheet = 4.234 x 1.005
= 4.25517m2
Since both length and breath have four significant figure , the area of the metal sheet after rounding off to
four significant figure given by –
Area =4.255m2
Volume of metal sheet = 4.234 x 1.005 x 2.01 x 10-2
= 8.55289 x 10-2 m-3
After rounding off volume it gives three significant figure
Volume = 8.55 x 10-2
Dimensions
• Dimensions of any physical quantity are those powers which are raised on fundamental
units to express its unit.
• Dimensional formula :The expression which shows how and which of the base
quantities represent the dimensions of a physical quantity, is called the dimensional
formula.
e.g. The dimensional formula of the mass is [M1 L0 T0] and that of volume is [M0 L3 T0]
• Dimensional Equation : The equation obtained by equating a physical quantity with its
dimensional formula is called dimensional equation.
e.g. [F] = [M1 L1 T-2] or [M L T-2]
[P] = [M1 L-1 T-2] or [M L-1 T-2]
• CATEGORIES PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
• Dimensional Costants: These are the quantities which possess dimensions and have
a fixed value.
Ex: Gravitational Constant

• Dimensional Variables: These are the quantities which possess dimensions and do

not have a fixed value
For ex: velocity, acceleration etc.

• Dimensionless Constants: these are the quantities which do not possess dimensions

and have a fixed value.
For ex: π etc.

• Dimensionless Variables: These are the quantities which are dimensionless and do

not have a fixed value.
For ex: Strain, Specific Gravity etc.
DIMENSIONAL FORMULAE OF SOME PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
Physical quantity Unit Dimensional formula

Acceleration or acceleration
ms–2 [LT-2]
due to gravity

Angle (arc/radius) rad [M0L0T0]

Angular displacement rad [MoLoTo]

Angular frequency (angular rads–1 [T-1]

displacement/time)

Angular impulse (torque x

time) Nms [ML2T–1]

Angular momentum (Iω) kgm2s–1 [ML2T–1]

Angular velocity (angle/time) rads–1 [T–1]

Area (length x breadth) m2 [L2]

Some important dimensional formula
PRINCIPLE OF HOMOGENEITY

• Homogeneity Principle : If the dimensions of left hand side of an equation are equal
to the dimensions of right hand side of the equation, then the equation is dimensionally
correct. This is known as homogeneity principle. Mathematically
• Dim of [LHS] = Dim of [RHS]
• Example [L] +[L] = [L]
[L] - [L] = [L]

Length can be added to a quantity with same dimensions and length can be subtracted
from a quantity with same dimensions.

We cannot add mass and length or length and time. No two quantities can be added
with different dimensions. Also one quantity can be subtracted from other only if they
have same dimensions.
 APPLICATIONS OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
1. Checking Dimensional Consistency of equations
A dimensionally correct equation must have same dimensions on both sides of the
equation.
A dimensionally correct equation need not be a correct equation but a dimensionally
incorrect equation is always wrong. It can test dimensional validity but not find exact
relationship between the physical quantities.
Example1 : Check the accuracy(correctness) of the equation
x = x0 + v0t + (1/2) at2
Here, x – Distance travelled in time t, x0 – starting position,
v0 - initial velocity, a – uniform acceleration.

Dimensionally, [L] = [L] + [LT-1][T] + [LT-2][T2] = [L]

Dimensions on both sides will be [L] as [T] gets cancelled out.
Hence Dimensions of LHS = Dimensions of RHS
Therefore the equation is dimensionally correct equation.
Example 2
Check whether the given equation is dimensionally correct.
W = 1/2 mv2 – mgh
where W stands for work done, m means mass, g stands for gravity, v for velocity and h
for height.
To check the above equation as dimensionally correct, we first write dimensions of all
the physical quantities mentioned in the equation.
W = Work done = Force × Displacement
= [MLT-2] × [L] = [ML2T-2] = Dim of LHS
1/2 mv2 = Kinetic Energy = [M] × [L2T-2] = [ML2T-2]
mgh = Potential Energy = [M] × [LT-2] × [L] = [ML2T-2]
Dimensionally, 1/2 mv2  + mgh = [ML2T-2] + [ML2T-2] = [ML2T-2]
Hence Dim of LHS = Dim of RHS
Since all the dimensions on left and right sides are equal it is a dimensionally correct
equation.
2. Deducing relation among physical quantities
• 
3. CONVERSION FROM ONE SYSTEM OF UNITS TO ANOTHER
Dimensional analysis is also used in obtaining the value of the physical quantity in another system. 
A physical quantity has two parts; one is the numerical or magnitude part and the other part is the unit part.
Suppose there’s a physical quantity X, which has unit “U” and magnitude “N”, then it will be expressed as:
Q = NU
To convert a physical quantity from one unit to another we use below relation:
N1U1 = N2U2
where N1 and N2 are numerical parts and U1 and U2 are dimensions or units of both quantities.
Example:
Convert force of unit Newton into dyne.
Let N1 and U1 be numerical value and unit of force in S.I system (Newton) and N 2 and U2 be numerical value
of force in CGS system (Dyne)
N1[M1aL1bT1c] = N2[M2aL2bT2c]
since [F] = [MLT-2] so a = 1 , b = 1 and c = -2 , N1 = 1 , N2 = ?Also 1N = 1kg x 1 m x 1s-2
M1 = 1kg, L1= 1m, T1 = 1s and M2=1gm, L2= 1cm , T2=1s
N2 = N1[M1/M2]a [L1/L2]b [T1/T2]c
N2 = [1 kg/1gm] × [1m/1cm ]× (1s/1s)-2]
N2 = [ 1000g/1g ]× [100cm/1cm] × [(1 s/ 1 s)-2]
N2 = [ 105]
Hence from the equation N1U1=N2U2
 LIMITATIONS OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
1. This method does not give any information about the dimensionless constant K
involved in physical equations.
2. It fails when a physical quantity depends on more than three physical quantities.
3. It fails when a physical relation is sum or difference of two or more quantities.
4. It fails to derive relationships which involves trigonometric, logarithmic or exponential
functions.
5. Sometimes, it is difficult to identify the factors on which the physical quantity depends.
The method becomes more complicated when dimensional constants like G, h, k etc
are involved.

End of Chapter