Ch-3 The Cellular Cocept-System Design Fundamentals

Cellular Mobile
Communications-II
The Cellular Concept-System Design Fundamentals
Dr. Nasir D.
Gohar
cture Notes “Wireless Cellular” by Professor A. Smith

cture Notes “Cellular Systems-An Introduction” by Professor Reynold Cheung
her Internet Resources
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II
 Introduction
 Frequency Reuse
 Channel Assignment Strategies
 Handoff Strategies
 Interference and System Capacity
 Trunking Theory and Grade of
Service
 Improving Coverage and System
Capacity
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II
 Conventional Radio System & its Limitations

 Single Hi Power Transmitter and Large Antenna
Towers/Masts
 Large Coverage Area/Larger Size Radios with Large Batteries
 Limited No. of Channels
 Poor Quality of Service [Bell Mobile NY City, in 1970s 12 Ch/1K Sqr
Miles]
 Still in use for Some Public/Private Organizations [PMR Systems]
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II
 Solution-Frequency Reuse
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II
 The Cellular Concept

 The Cellular Idea
 Developed by Bell Labs (1960s-1970s)
 Divide the service Area into Several Smaller Cells
 Put at least as many Towers as the # of Cells and Reduce the
Transmitter Power
 Reuse the Allocated Frequency Spectrum (Channels) as many
Times as Possible Avoiding Interference
 Gains but with Pains
 Greater System Capacity at the Cost of Large Infra-Structure
 Optimal Frequency Spectrum Utilization attained by making
System more Complicated
 User Equipment Design made Smarter at the cost of Circuit
Complexity and Processing Power
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II

The Cell Shape
 All cells should have same
shape and equal area
 Possible Choices: Rectangle,
Triangle, and Hexagon
 For a given value of S, A3
Provides the Max. Coverage
Area with fewest number of RSL
Cells
 Actual Radio Coverage Area of ACTUAL CELL
CELL
Cell is amorphous (irregular
shaped)- obtained by field
measurements or by using
prediction models through computer
simulation
This is known as footprint
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II

Frequency Reuse Factor-
N = no. of distinct channel groups = maximum cluster size
Typical Values of N are 1, 3, 4, 7, 9, 12, 13, 16, 19, 21,
…
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II

Frequency Reuse/Planning -
Selection and Allocation of Channel
Groups (out of the Allotted Spectrum
S) for all the Cellular Base Stations
within a System
 Each Cell is allocated a unique
group of k Channels
 If N is the Frequency Reuse
Factor (Cluster Size), then S = kN
 If a cluster is replicated M times
in the system, then System
Capacity as the measure of total
number of duplex channels is
given as C = MkN = MS
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II
 The Cellular Concept G

B
C
G
B
C
 Placement of Base Stations F
A
D
A
F D
 Center-Excited Cell: Base Station E
B E
Transmitters/Receivers [Transceivers] G C
are placed at the location which is A
probably the most closest to the Center F

E
D
of the Cell
 Normally, Omni-Directional
Center-Excited Cells
Antennas are used
 Edge-Excited Cell: Base Station

Transceivers are placed three out of six B
vertices [Corners] of the hexagonal- G C
shaped cells
A
 Sectored Directional Antennas are F D
used E
NOTE: Most Systems Allow 1/4 of the Cell Edge-Excited Cells

Radius as Proxy Margin for the Distance of
the Actual Place from the Ideal Place
[Center of the Cell
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II

 Locating Co-Channel Cell B
 Observation: The Geometry of G C B

the Hexagons is such that the G C
A
number of cells per cluster, N, can F D
only have values such that A
E F J =1 D
 N = i*i +i*j+j*j, i and j are
B E
non-negative integers. I =2
G C B
 Method to Find the Nearest
G C
Co-Channel Neighbor A
F D
 Move I Cells along any chain of A
hexagon, then, E F D
 Turn 60 degree counter- EXAMPLE:Finding Co-Channel Neighbor,
E
clockwise and N= 7, I = 2, j=1
 Move J Cells.
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II
 The Cellular Concept - System Design Example-

A total of 33 MHz bandwidth is allocated to a particular FDD Cellular Phone System. If the Simplex
01
Voice/Control Channel bandwidth is 25 KHz, Find the total # of Channels available per Cell if the
System uses (a) 4-Cell Frequency Reuse (b) 7-Cell Frequency-Reuse Plan. If 1 MHz out of the total
allocated bandwidth is used for Control Channels, determine an equitable distribution of the Control
and Voice Channels in each Cell in case of each Frequency-Reuse Plan.
SOLUTION:
Total allocated bandwidth = 33 MHz,
Duplex Channel bandwidth = 25x2=50 KHz
Total # of Available(Voice/Control) Channels = 33,000/50 = 660 Channels.
(a) N= 4, so total # of Channels/Cell = 660/4 = 165 Channels
(b) N=7, so total # of Channels/Cell = 660/7 = 95 Channels
In Case of 1 MHz bandwidth allocated for Control Channels, total # of Control
Channels = 1000/50=20 Channels per Systems.
Out of 660 Channels, 20 are used as Control and remaining 640 as Voice Channels.
(a) N=4, Each Cell can have 20/4=5 Control Channels and 640/4=160 Voice
Channels. But, each Cell needs only one Control Channel, so, each cell will be
assigned one Control Channel and 160 Voice Channel.
(b) N = 7, Each Cell can have 20/7 = 3 Control Channels and 640/7=91 Voice
Channels[Plus 3 Extra], but it needs only 1 Control Channel, so, we can assign 4
Cells with 91 Voice Channels and one Control Channels, and 3 Cells with 92 Voice
Channels and one Control Channels.
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II

 Effect of Cell Size – Trade offs
Pluses of Smaller Cell Size:
Higher M (More Replications of Cell Cluster) Higher
System Capacity
Channel reuse Higher System Capacity
 Lower power requirements for mobiles
Negatives of Smaller Cell Size:

Additionalbase stations required
More frequent handoffs
Extra possibilities for interference
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II

 Effect of Cluster Size
 Each Cluster have Unique Group of Channels
which are Repeated over Clusters
 Keeping Cell Size Same
 Large N- weaker interference, but lower
capacity
 Small N- higher capacity, more interference,
need to maintain certain S/I level
 Frequency Reuse Factor: 1/N
 Each Cell within a Cluster Assigned 1/N of the
total Available Channels
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II
 The Channel Assignment Strategies

Objective: Maximize the System Capacity
while Minimizing the Interference [A
Constrained Optimization Problem]
Classification: G
B
C B
 Fixed Channel Assignment A

G C
F D
 Dynamic Channel Assignment E F
A
D
Choice has Impact on System G

B
C
E
B
Performance F
A
D
G C
A
 Handoff E F D
E
 Call Initialization
 MSC Processing Load
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II

 Fixed Channel Assignment  Dynamic Channel
 Each Cell is Assigned a Assignment
Predetermined Set of [say  No Permanent Assignment
x=1/N] Voice Channels of Voice Channels to any
 Any Request for a New Call Cell
Initialization beyond x  Any Request for a New Call
[ Assuming all x Channels of Initialization / Handoff will
the Cell are in Use] will be be met by a Dynamic
Blocked Allocation of a Channel
 Any Request for a Handoff from the Central Pool of
[ Assuming all x Channels of Available Channels by MSC
this Candidate Cell are in  Channel Allocation is done
Use] will not be treated. [MS by using an Algorithm that
may have to Wait, Call can takes into Account;
Drop even]  Probability of Future Blocking
 Several Solution to the (in the Cell)
 Frequency of Use of Candidate
Problem: Channels
 Borrowing Strategy
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II

Advantages/Disadvantages of Dynamic
Channel Allocation
Reduction of Blocking Probability
Reduction of Call Drop Probability During Hand Off
Improvement of System Trunking Capacity [Traffic
Intensity/Channel]- All Channels are Accessible by all
Cells
 All that above-mentioned Benefits are Obtained at the
Cost of
Storage and Computational Load on MSC
 MSC must Collect real-time Channel Occupancy Data
 Traffic Distribution Information
 Radio Signal Strength Indications (RSSI) of all the
Channels
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II
 The Handoff Strategies

 What is Handoff?
When a mobile moves into a different cell while a
conversation is in progress, the MSC automatically
transfers the call to a new channel belonging to the
new base station
 Important task in any cellular radio system
 Must be performed successfully, infrequently,
and
imperceptible to users.
 Identify a new base station
 Channel allocation in new base station
 High priority than initiation request( block new
calls
rather than drop existing calls)
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II

 Improper Handoff Situation
Δ too small:
 Insufficient
time to
complete
handoff before
call is lost
 More call
losses
 Δ too large:
 too many
handoffs
 burden for
MSC
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II

 Proper Handoff Situation
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II

 Handoff Styles
MSC
 Network Controlled
Handoff (NCHO)
 In first generation Cell A Cell B
cellular system each fa
base station
constantly monitors
signal strength from RSL
dbm
RSL A
RSL B
mobiles in its cell
 Based on the Distance
measures, MSC
decides if handoff B
necessary G C
MSC
 Mobile plays passive F

A
D
role in process E
 Heavy Burden on MSC

Cellular Mobile
Communications-II

 Handoff Styles
 Mobile Assisted Handoff (MAHO)
 Present in second generation systems
 Mobile measures received power from
surrounding base stations and report to
serving base station
 Handoff initiated when power received
from a
neighboring cell exceeds current value
by a
certain level or for a certain period of
time
 Faster since measurements made by
mobiles, MSC doesn’t need monitor signal
strength
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II

 Handoff Types
 Hard Handoff - (break before make)
 FDMA, TDMA (1G and 2G Systems)
 Mobile has radio link with only one BS at anytime
 Old BS connection is terminated before new BS
connection is made
Soft Handoff (make before break)

 CDMA systems mobile has simultaneous radio link
with more than one BS at any time
 New BS connection is made before old B
connection is broken
 Mobile unit remains in this state until one base
station clearly predominates
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II
The Handoff Strategies

 First Generation Cellular Systems
 Locate Receiver at Base Station Plus MSC Decides Handoff
Requests
 Critical Choice of
∆ = P r Hand Off - P r min Usable
B
Level at Point A
 ∆ Must be Optimized
Received Signal Level
∆ Handoff Threshold Level
G C Minimum Acceptable Level  Typical Handoff Time =10

MSC Level at Point B [Call is Terminated]
A Sec
F D Time
 ∆ = 6 to12 dB
MSC
E  SPEED of the Mobile Impact
 DWELL Time = Time for
D
RSSI A Cell A Cell B which a Call can be maintained

E fa
C
F A B fb within a Cell w/o Handoff
G B
Frequency
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II

 Second Generation Cellular Systems
(TDMA)
 Mobile Assisted Hand Off [MAHO]
 Mobile Measures the Pr from all Surrounding Base
Stations
 Reports all these Measurement Result to the Serving
Base Station
 Hand Off Initiated when Prs < Prc [by Certain Level or
for sometime]
 Hand Off Times are Much Shorter [ 1-2 Sec]
 ∆ = 0 to 6 dB
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II

 Second Generation Cellular Systems (CDMA)
Unique Handoff Strategy [Soft Handoff ]
Radio Shares the Same Channel in all Cells
No Physical Change of Assigned Channel Occurs
Just Different Base Station Handles the ongoing Call
MSC Continuously Monitors the Data about Received Signal
Level of the Mobile at Various Base Stations, and, Makes
Decision which Version of the Mobile Signal is Better at any
Time Point
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II

Inter-System Handoff
Mobile is at the Border of the System [Home
Service Provider’s Service Area]
MSC of the Serving Cell Talks to the MSC of the
Neighboring System or Vice Versa
Several Issues are Resolved Before Handoff Can
Take Place
 Call Type
 Roaming is Allowed or Not?
 Compatibility Issues [Standards]
 User Authenticity and Call Charges Issues
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II
 Prioritizing Handoffs
Guard Channel Method
 A Fraction of the Total Available Channels
is Reserved for Handoffs
In case of Fixed Channel Assignment, it Affects
System Capacity [C = M k N]
Good in in Case of Dynamic Channel Assignment
Queuing Handoff Request Method
 Any Handoff Request, if can not be tackled
Immediately, it will be Placed in a Queue [ for
sometime before the signal levels goes below the
minimum acceptable and it has to be dropped]
 Does not Guarantee 100% Success for all
Handoff Requests
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II
 Practical Handoffs Problems

Speed Difference Between Various Mobiles
 High Speed Vehicles vs Pedestrians
Umbrella Cell Approach to Tackle High Speed and Low Speed
Traffic Simultaneously
Small MicroCells for

Large Umbrella Cell Low Speed Traffic
for Hi peed Traffic
Cell Dragging
 Pedestrian Users Providing a very Strong Signal due to
Direct LOS
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II
 Cell Site Configuration

Ch-1
Rx -1
Splitter
Main Antenna
Ch-n Diversity Antenna
Rx -n
Ch-1
T1/E1 Tx-1
MSC
Combiner
Ch-n
Duplexer
Tx-n
Ch-1
Rx -1
Splitter
Ch-n Rx -n
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II
 Cell Site Configuration

 Mux/DeMux Equipment: Demultiplexes a Base-band Signal [T1/E1] from
MSC into 24/32 Signals and vice-versa
 Transceivers: AMPS allows typically 48 Radio Channels per Cell / A Digital
Cellular Radio System, Using TDMA, can Serve 48x3 Subscribers with same
number of Channels
 Splitter: Used on Receive Path, it Amplifies the incoming Signal using LNA,
Filters and Splits the Base-band Signal into Corresponding Channels
 Combiner: Used on Transmit Path, after the Signals have been Modulated,
upconverted, and Amplified by Transmitters of the Corresponding Channels,
these are Combined to form a Single Stream of High-Power Radio Signals
 Duplexer: It filters the Radio Signal and keeps Rx/Tx Signals Confined to their
Respective Paths.
 Spatial Diversity: Main and Diversity Antennas are used to Provide Spatial
Diversity for the Better Communication
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II
 Cellular Antennas
Antenna: Signal Processing Device that Transmits/Receives EM
Signals Simultaneously
Antenna Categories
 Passive Antenna: RP Controlled by Type and Construction of
the Device, Using Mechanical Means we can Guide the Signal
 Active Antenna: RP Controlled by Type and Construction as
well as DSP Technique of the Device
General Classification on RP
 Omni Directional Antenna: Equal Radiation in all Directions
 Directional Antenna: More Radiation in a Certain Direction
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II
 Essential Antenna Parameters

 Antenna Directivity & Gain Bore Sight
GAIN
 Energy Concentration in −θ +θ
One direction wrt other Isotropic
directions
 Gain = P1/P2
 Antenna Beam Width
 Beam Width = 2 θ
 Antenna Front-to-Back
Ratio
GAIN Typical Antenna Parameters
 F2B ratio = 10 Log Pm / Pb Type Frequency Response BW
M. Antenna 824-894 MHz 70 MHz
 Frequency Response D. Antenna
Mob. Ant.
824-849 MHz
824-894 MHz
25 MHz
70 MHz
 Antenna BW = fH - fL where 0 dB
- 3 dB
FH and fL are upper and
Lower 3 dB Frequencies
fL fo fH FREQUENCY
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II
 Interference and System Capacity

What is Interference: Unwanted Signal Which Affects the
Speech Quality and System Capacity
Sources of Interference: Several Including another Mobile

in the Same Cell, a Call in Progress in the Neighboring Cell,
Other Base Stations Operating in Vicinity Using the Same
Frequency Band, or Some non-Cellular Device/System Leaking
Energy in the Cellular Frequency Band. Two Major Ones are;
 Co-Channel Interference
 Adjacent-Channel Interference
A Major Bottle-Neck in System Capacity: A Trade-off
has to be made between System Capacity and Speech Quality
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II
 Co-Channel Interference and

System Capacity
 Co-Channel Interference:
 The Signals of the Co-Channel Cells, the Cells Using
the Same Set of Frequencies in the given Coverage
Area, Interfere with Each Other
D
 Co-Channel Reuse Factor B
 If the Base Station Power is the G C B
Same,and Cell Radius is also Almost A

G C
then Same, then Q, the Co-Channel F D

A
Reuse Factor is defined as E F D
B E
C
 Q = D / R = √3 N G B
G C
 Signal to Interference Ratio F
A
D
A
E F D
n n
 S/I = (D/R) = (√3 N ) E
io io
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II
 Co-Channel Interference and System Capacity

 Co-Channel Interference: B
Co-Channel Reuse Factor G C B
 Q = D / R = √3 N A
G C
 Consider two adjacent co-channel cells, F D
A
centered at C1 = (u1, v1) and C2 = (u2, E F D
v-axis
v2) B E
G C B
o
 C1 = (u1 Cos 30 , v1+u1Sin 30 ) o R
G C
A C2=(u2, v2)
 C2 = (u2 Cos 30o, v2+u2Sin 30o) B V2 F D
G C BE DF A D
 Distance between them is D C E u2
u-axis
G
A C1=(u1, v1)
F V1D
 In terms of X-axis and V-axis Coordinate A
E F D
systems, it is u2Sin 30
B Eu1
u1Sin 30
 D = [(u2-u1)2+(v2-v1)2+(v2-v1)(u2-u1)]1/2 G C B
G C x-axis
A
 In case of (u1, v1) moved to the origin, F u1Cos
D 30
A
we have E F
u2Cos 30
D
D = [(u2)2+(v2)2+(v2)(u2)]1/2 E
 In case of normalization, D = (i2+j2+ij)1/2
 Distance between any two adjacent Cells = 2 R Cos 30o
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II

 Co-Channel Interference:
 Co-Channel Reuse Factor
 The Co-Channel Interference is a
function of Q, Co-Channel Reuse
Factor?
 Under normalized condition,

1/2
D = (i2+j2+ij)
 But, the actual distance is

1/2
D = √3 R (i2+j2+ij)
 Ratio of large
 Area of a hexagonal cell = 2.59 hexagon area to a
2 2
R = kR
single cell area
 Area of large hexagonal cell = 2 2
kD
2 3N = 3(i +j +ij) or
2 2
2
= k [3R (i2+j2+ij)] D /R = 3N or Q =
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II

 Q = D / R = √3 N and
n n
S/I = (D/R) = (√3 N )
io io
N D/R = 3 N S/I Ch. Cap per Cell
3 3 -11 138
4 3.46 -13 104
7 4.58 -18 59
9 5.2 -20 46
12 6 -23 34
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II

 Relationship between Co-Channel Reuse Ratio Q and SIR
 SIR = (Q)n/Number of Interfering Cells in the First Tier, n
is the Path Loss Exponent (2-5 depending on the type of
area)
D D D D
+
D D R
D + D
R -
D D DR
D
-
R
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II
 Adjacent Cell Interference and

System Capacity
 Adjacent-Channel Interference [ACI]:
An Interference Arising from Energy Spill-
Over between Two Adjacent Channels
D
4,11,18,2
F B
 ACI results from the Imperfect behavior 5
6,13,20,2 2,9,16,23
of the Rx Filters Allowing nearby
7
Frequencies to Leak into the Pass-band A
 ACI can be minimized through careful 1,8,15,22
filter design and Channel Assignment C G
[ by keeping the Inter-Channel 3,10,17,2 7,14,21,2
Frequency Difference as large as 4 8
Possible] E
 Some Channel Assignment Schemes 5,12,19,2
6
keeps this Difference in a cell by at least
N Channel Bandwidths, where N is the
Cluster Size
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II
 Trunking and Grade of Service

 Trunking Theory
 Developed by a Danish Mathematician, A.K. Earling in the Late
19th Century
 It helps in Establishing a Trunked System which can Provide
Communication Services to a Large Group of Users with Limited
Number of Available Circuits / Channels in the System [based on a
certain GOS]
 A Sharing Concept: Large Number of Users Share a Small
Number of Channels in a Cell/System
 Based on a Statistical Behavior of Users
 All PSTN/Cellular Radio Systems Exploit Trunking to Cover a
Large User Community with their Limited Number of Circuits /
Frequency Spectrum
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II

 Trunking Terminology
Call Set up Time: Time Required to Allocate a Trunked Radio
Channel to a Requesting User
Blocked/Lost Call: A Call that can not be Completed at the Time
of the Request, due to Congestion
Holding Time: Average Duration of a typical Call, denoted by H
Request Rate: Average Number of Call Requests/Unit Time
[denoted by λ]
Traffic Intensity : Average Channel Occupancy, measured in
Earlings
A Channel that Remains Occupied Cent/Cent [All the Time] is
said to Carry a Traffic of One Earling. For Example, if a Channel
remained busy for 1 hr/hr or 1 min/min , its Traffic Intensity is 1
Earling. And, a Channel that remained under use for 30 mins in
an hr, its Traffic Intensity is 0.5 Earling [Denoted by A]
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II

 Trunking Terminology – Cont’d
Load: The System-wide Traffic Intensity
Grade of Service (GOS): A Measure of Congestion, in terms
of Probability of Call being Blocking or Call being Delayed [ 0 <
GOS < 1]
Traffic Intensity Offered by a User: Au = λ H (in Earlings)
Total System Traffic / Load = A = Au, U, where U is the total
number of System Users
Traffic Intensity per Channel: If C is the Total number of
Channels in a System, and given Load A, then the Traffic
Intensity / Channel, Ac = A/C
Maximum System Traffic Capacity: Equal to the number of
Available Channels [in Earlings]
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II

Trunking Systems
 Blocked Calls Cleared (BCC) Trunking Systems:
Any Call Request at any time will be Served Immediately if
Some Free Channel is Available in the Pool
A Call will be Blocked [and Lost] if no Free Channel is
Available at the Time of Request
The Blocked User is Free to Try Again Later at any Time.
 Assumptions:
 Calls Arrive According to Poisson Distribution
POISSON DISTRIBUTION:A Statistical Process that Applies to a Sequence of Events which take
place at regular intervals of time or throughout a continuous interval of time. It has got many Applications such
as number of customers arriving at a Gasoline Station, Number of Air Planes arriving at an Airport, or Number
of Phone Calls arriving at a Switch [MTX]. Let C be total # of Trunks [Channels], and A be the Offered
Traffic in Earlings, then the Probability of all the C Channels are busy or in other words Probability of
Blocking is defined by the following Poisson Distribution;
C -A -A C k
P(C;A) = P(Blocking) =A e Where e = 1/∑ A = GOS
k
C! k!
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II

Trunking Systems-Cont’d
 Blocked Calls Cleared (BCC) Trunking Systems
 Assumptions[Continued]:
 There is Infinite Number of Users*
 Memoryless Arrivals of Requests -> Any User, including the blocked
one, can make a request at any time
 Probability of a User Occupying a Channel is Exponentially
Distributed -> Longer Calls are Less likely to Occur
 Finite Number of Available Channels in the Pool
 Such a System is called an Earling B System which is
governed by Earling B Formula [EBF], as given in the Equation
3.16 in the book.
* Practical Trunking Radio Systems always have finite number of
users, however, it is typical that the number of Users in a system
always outnumber the available channels by orders of magnitudes.
So, EBF, gives us a modest measure of GOS as the actual systems,
where users are finite, will face less chances of a call blockage
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II

Trunking Systems
 Blocked Calls Cleared (BCC) Trunking Systems-Cont’d
Table-1: Capacity of an Earling B System
System Capacity [Earlings] for GOS

No. of Channels 0.02 0.01 0.005 0.002 0.001
2 0.223 0.153 0.105 0.065 0.046
4 1.09 0.869 0.701 0.535 0.439
5 1.66 1.36 1.13 0.9 0.762
10 5.08 4.46 3.96 3.43 3.09
20 13.2 12 11.1 10.1 9.41
24 16.6 15.3 14.2 13 12.2
40 31 29 27.3 25.7 24.5
70 59.1 56.1 53.7 51 49.2
100 88 84.1 80.9 77.4 75.2
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II

Trunking Systems
Blocked Calls Cleared (BCC) Trunking Systems-Cont’d
EXAMPLE-01: Consider a small Cellular radio System of 4 Channels. There are

all together 20 Subscribers and each Subscriber is expected to generate a traffic of
0.1 Earling. Determine the Probability of Blockage [That at any Time all the 4 channels
get Busy.
SOLUTION: C = 4, U = 20, and Au = 0.1. Now, A = 0.1 * 20 = 2 Earlings
P(4, 2) = 24 * e-2 = 0.09
4!
EXAMPLE-02: GOS required is 0.02, and it is expected that 1000 calls are
generated per hr with avg. call duration of 2 min., calculate the total number of
channels required by the system per cell.
SOLUTION: GOS = 0.02, and Total Traffic per cell = 1000 x 2/60 = 33 Earling
Looking at the Table, with this GOS, we see we require 42 Channels per Cell.
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II

Trunking Systems
 Blocked Calls Delayed (BCD) Trunking Systems
 Blocked Calls are Provided with a Queue to hold the Call Request
unless a Channel becomes Available.
 GOS of BCD Trunking Radio System is defined as a Probability that a
Call is blocked and delayed for a time longer than t seconds.
P(C;A, delay > t sec) = P(C;A, delay > 0)*P(C;A, delay >t sec | delay
>0)
= P(C;A, delay > 0)*exp(-(C-A)t /H)
Average Delay D for all the Calls in the System is given by
D = P(C;A, delay >0) * H/(C-A)
 Earling C Chart is used to study the Relationship between various
parameters such as Traffic Intensity A, C, and P(C;A,delay>0)
Trunking Efficiency [TE]
Trunking Efficiency (%) = [Traffic Intensity (A) / C] * 100
EXAMPLE-03: C = 48, GOS = 0.02, we Calculate A = 38.4
Earlings[Using Earling B Chart], now TE = [38.4/48]*100 = 80 %
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II

 Earling B Chart - Gives Relationships among GOS, C, and A
for BCC Trunking Radio Systems
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II

 Earling C Chart - Gives Relationships among GOS, C, and A
for BCD Trunking Radio Systems
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II

Cellular Mobile
Communications-II

Cellular Mobile
Communications-II

Cellular Mobile
Communications-II

Cellular Mobile
Communications-II

Cellular Mobile
Communications-II

Cellular Mobile
Communications-II

Capacity
 Review: What is System Capacity?
C = M k N, Where N is the Cluster Size, k is the number of
Channels used per Cell, and M is the Replications of the the
Cluster in the given System Coverage Area.
In terms of Traffic Intensity, we know that total Traffic handled
by a System is A = U Au, U is the number of users in the
System, and Au is the traffic generated by a typical user. Max.
Value that A can assume is C [Upper Limit of the System].
From A = U Au, we can easily Conclude that as U increases, A
will increase, so the Traffic Offered to the System will Increase
Leading to Congestion [Blockage of the Calls].
Given an Allocated Spectrum [S = k N ] which is Fixed, We
have to use some Cellular Design Techniques to Improve System
Capacity [ C or A as A is a Function of C].
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II

Capacity
Cellular Design Techniques to Improve System
Capacity
 Cell Splitting Technique:
This Technique Improves the System Capacity by Reducing
the Cluster Coverage Area [ in other words Cell Area] to
Increase M, keeping Cluster Size N and Co-Channel Reuse
Ratio, Q = D/R = SQRT(3N) Constant. It Maintains S/I by
Reducing the Base Station Tx Power, Antenna Height, and
Antenna Down-Tilting Mechanism.
 Sectoring Technique:
This Technique Improves the system Capacity by Reducing
the Cluster Size, N, to get High value of M. Since it plays with
N, thus, Changing Q and S/I. In order to use same Cell Size
and Tx Power, it has to use Cell Sectoring to Avoid Co-
Channel Interference by using Directional Antennas. It
Improves System Capacity and S/I but at the Cost of
Decreased System Trunking Efficiency.
Microcell Zone Technique:
This is the Latest Technique which Improve the System
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II

Capacity
Cell Splitting Technique
 Any Congested Cell is Splitted
into several Smaller Cells called C
uCells. D E
 Cell [uCell] Coverage Area is

G D
Reduced -> Cluster Area is
E B
Reduced that in turn Increase M, F
F
D
so Improvement in System C A
F
Capacity is Achieved. C C
E G
 Placement of the uCells is Made B
G
such that it Maintains the System D E
Frequency Reuse Structure/Plan. B

G
Q and S/I is Maintained by F
 Reduction in Tx Power, Antenna
Height, and Using Antenna Down-
Tilting Technique.
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II

Capacity
Cell Splitting Technique
C
How much Reduction of Tx Power? E
D
Pr (old Cell Boundary) ∝ Pt1 R -n
G D
E B
F
Pr (new Cell Boundary) ∝ Pt2 (R/2) -n
D
F
C A
F
C C
E G
Equating them, we get Pt2 = Pt1 / 2 n
B
For Urban Environment, n = 4, G D E
so. Pt2 = Pt1 / 16 or 12 dB down. B

G
F
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II

Capacity
System Growth in Cell Splitting
In the beginning, only the Congested Cells are Splitted.
Different Cell Sizes in Use Demands for Different
Frequency/Channel Groups and Tx Power/ Antenna Height.
Size of Channel Groups Depends on the Splitting Stage.
Bigger Cells are used for High Speed Traffic
As the Demand Increases in Micro-cells and With More Cells
get Splitted, , uCell Channel Group is made Relatively
Bigger.
As Splitting gets Completed, all Cells are of the same Size
and Use the Entire Frequency Spectrum according to the
Frequency Reuse Plan.
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II

Capacity
Cell Splitting Technique:
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II

Capacity
Cell Splitting Technique:
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II

Capacity
Sectoring Technique:
Improves the System Capacity by
Reducing the Cluster Size, 2-1
2-3
N(keeping the Cell Size same), to 2-2 3-1
3-3
get more Cell Cluster Replications. 2-3
2-1
1-3
1-1 3-2
2-2 1-2
As N is decreased, Q = D/R = 3-3
3-1
4-3
4-1
1-1 3-2 4-2

SQRT(3N), is also decreased. 1-3
1-2 4-1
As the Cell Size is kept the same, the Tx 4-3
4-2
Power of the BS is to be kept the same.

That will Increase the Chances of Co- 6
1
2
Channel Interference. 5 4 3
To Improve S/I (by reducing I), we use

Cell Sectoring and Use Directional
Antennas.
120 Degree Sectoring [3 Freq. Groups]
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II

Capacity
Sectoring Technique:
Each Cell in the Cluster is Divided into
3/6 Sectors
Each Sector uses a Smaller Group of
Channels
Reduced Trunking Efficiency
With Sectoring and Use of Directional
Antennas, Interference is Reduced.
S/I is Improved.
Number of Handoff is Increased
Many Modern Systems, Within a Cell,
Inter-Sector Handoff are dealt by the
Mobile sets without Involving MSC.
In Short, Increase in System Capacity
and S/I is Achieved at the Cost of
Reduction of Trunking Efficiency.
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II

Capacity
Sectoring Technique:
Cellular Mobile
Communications-II

Capacity
Microcell Zone Technique:
 Improves the System Capacity as
well as S/I ratio without Sacrificing
the Trunking Efficiency of the
System.
All Microcell Zones [3 or more in a
Cell] use a Single Base Station but
Different Tx/Rx Equipment with
Reduced Tx Power.
All the Channels are Placed in a Pool
at the BS and Equally Shared by all
uCell Zones [ No subdivision of
Channels as against in Sectoring]
The Antennas of Each Zone Tx/Rx
are Directed inwards and Placed at
the Outer Edge of the Cell.
Cell Maintains its Coverage Area, Co-
Channel Interference is Reduced.

Ch-3 The Cellular Cocept-System Design Fundamentals

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Cellular Mobile

cture Notes “Wireless Cellular” by Professor A. Smith

 Conventional Radio System & its Limitations

 The Cellular Concept

 The Cellular Concept

 The Cellular Concept

 The Cellular Concept

 The Cellular Concept G

are placed at the location which is A

probably the most closest to the Center F

 Edge-Excited Cell: Base Station

NOTE: Most Systems Allow 1/4 of the Cell Edge-Excited Cells

 The Cellular Concept

 Observation: The Geometry of G C B

 The Cellular Concept - System Design Example-

 The Cellular Concept

Negatives of Smaller Cell Size:

 The Cellular Concept

 The Channel Assignment Strategies

 Fixed Channel Assignment A

Choice has Impact on System G

 The Channel Assignment Strategies

 The Channel Assignment Strategies

 The Handoff Strategies

 The Handoff Strategies

 The Handoff Strategies

 The Handoff Strategies

cellular system each fa

 Mobile plays passive F

 Heavy Burden on MSC

 The Handoff Strategies

 The Handoff Strategies

Soft Handoff (make before break)

The Handoff Strategies

G C Minimum Acceptable Level  Typical Handoff Time =10

RSSI A Cell A Cell B which a Call can be maintained

The Handoff Strategies

The Handoff Strategies

The Handoff Strategies

 Practical Handoffs Problems

Small MicroCells for

 Cell Site Configuration

 Cell Site Configuration

 Essential Antenna Parameters

 Interference and System Capacity

Sources of Interference: Several Including another Mobile

 Co-Channel Interference and

Same,and Cell Radius is also Almost A

then Same, then Q, the Co-Channel F D

 Co-Channel Interference and System Capacity

Co-Channel Reuse Factor G C B

 Co-Channel Interference and System Capacity

 Under normalized condition,

 But, the actual distance is

 Co-Channel Interference and System Capacity

N D/R = 3 N S/I Ch. Cap per Cell

 Co-Channel Interference and System Capacity

 Adjacent Cell Interference and