Radiation 2

Radiation
What is Radiation?
 Is the mode of heat transfer electromagnetic wave.
 Anything whose temperature is above the surrounding will

always radiate significant amount of radiation.
 The Stefan- Boltzmann Law (otherwise known as fourth

power law) of heat transfer governs radiation heat transfer.
Where:
Q/t = heat transfer transmitted by radiation per unit time
e = emissivity factor
σ = 0.1713 x 10-8 is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant in Btu/ft2-R4. In SI units
it is 5.669 x 10-8 W/m2-K4.
What is Radiation?
Ludwig Eduard Boltzmann

What is perfect black body?
 Is any body that would absorb all the radiant energy it received.
 Reflectivity, r – is the fraction of the radiant energy reflected by

a body.
 Absorptivity, a – is the fraction of the radiant energy absorbed

by the body.
 Transmissivity, t – is the fraction of the radiant energy

transmitted through the body.
r +a +t =1
What is perfect black body?
 Kirchhoff’s law – states that the ratio of the rate of emitting and
absorbing energy is a constant for any body for a given
temperature and wave length.
 Emissivity of any body – is the ratio of the rate of emission of

radiant energy for that body to the rate of emission for a perfect
black body under the same conditions. Also called emittance e.
(range from 0 to 1).
 Gray Body – is the actual body that radiates less heat than a
black body.
Problems
1. How many watts will be radiated from a spherical black body
15 cm in diameter at a temperature of 800C.
Ans: 5.34 kW
2. Calculate the radiation in Watts per square centimeter from a

block of copper at 200C. The oxidized copper surface radiates at
0.60 the rate of a black body.
Ans: 0.17 W/cm2

Problems
3. The hot combustion gases of a furnace are separated from the
ambient air and its surrounding, which are at 25C, by a brick wall
0.15 m thick. The brick has a thermal conductivity of 1.2 W/m-K
and a surface emissivity of 0.8. Under steady state conditions and
outer surface temperature of 100C is measured. Free convection
heat transfer to the air adjoining this surface is characterized by a
convection coefficient of 20 W/m2-K. What is the brick inner
surface temperature in C? (ME Board Oct. 1995)
Ans: 352.5C
Types
Although heat exchangers come in every shape and size imag
inable, the construction of most heat exchangers fall int
o one of two categories:
 tube and shell, plate, regenerative, and
recuperators.
Tube and Shell
• The most basic and the most common type of heat exchanger
construction is the tube and shell, as shown in Figure.
• This type of heat exchanger consists of a set of tubes in a container

called a shell. The fluid flowing inside the tubes is called the
tube side fluid and the fluid flowing on the outside of the tubes is th
e shell side fluid.
• At the ends of the tubes, the tube side fluid is separated from the sh
ell side fluid by the tube sheet(s). The tubes are rolled and press-fitt
ed or welded into the tube sheet to provide a leak tight seal.
Tube and Shell
• In systems where the two fluids are at vastly different pr
essures, the higher pressure fluid is typically directed through the tu
bes and the lower pressure fluid is circulated on the shell side.
• This is due to economy, because the heat exchanger tubes can be m

ade to withstand higher pressures than the shell of the heat exchang
er for a much lower cost.
• The support plates shown on Figure also act as baffles to direct the
flow of fluid within the shell back and forth across the tubes.
Tube and Shell
Plate Heat Exchanger
• A plate type heat exchanger, as illustrated in Figure 2, consists of
plates instead of tubes to separate the hot and cold fluids.
• The hot and cold fluids alternate between each of the plates. Baffles direct t
he flow of fluid between plates.
• Because each of the plate has a very large surface area, the plates provi
de each of the fluids with an extremely large heat transfer area.
• Therefore a plate type heat exchanger, as compared to a similar ly si

zed tube and shell heat exchanger, is capable of transferring much mo
re heat.
• This is due to large r area the plates pro

vide over tubes.
Plate Heat Exchanger
Plate Type Heat Exchanger
Regenerative Heat Exchanger
• A third type of heat exchanger is the regenerative exchanger.
• In this, the heat from a process is used to warm the fluids to be used in the
process, and the same type of fluid is used either side of the heat exchan
ger (these heat exchangers can be either plate-and-frame or shell-and-tube c
onstruction).
• These exchangers are used only for gases and not for liquids. The major fac
tor for this is the heat capacity of the heat transfer matrix.
Regenerative Heat Exchanger
Recuperators
• A fourth type of heat exchanger uses an intermediate fluid or solid store to
hold heat, which is then moved to the other side of the heat exchanger to be
released.
• Two examples of this are adiabatic wheels, which consist of a large wheel
with fine threads rotating through the hot and cold fluids, and fluid heat ex
changers.
• This type is used when it is acceptable for a small amount of mixing to occ
ur between the two streams.
Recuperators
FLOW OF ARRANGEMENT
1. Parallel Flow
2. Counter Flow
3. Cross Flow
Parallel Flow
In parallel-flow heat exchangers, the two fluids enter the
exchanger at the same end, and travel in parallel to one
another to the other side.
Parallel Flow
Counter Flow
• In counter-flow heat exchangers the fluids enter the

exchanger from opposite ends. The counter current design is most
efficient, in that it can transfer the most heat.
Cross Flow
• In a cross-flow heat exchanger, the fluids travel roughly perpendicular

to one another through the exchanger.
• The exchanger's performance can also be affected by the addition of

fins or corrugations in one or both directions, which increase surface area
and may channel fluid flow or induce turbulence.
Log Mean Temperature Difference
• The log mean temperature difference (LMTD) is used to deter
mine the temperature driving force for heat transfer in flow sy
stems (most notably in heat exchangers).
• The LMTD is a logarithmic average of the temperature diff

erence between the hot and cold streams at each end of the exchang
er.
• For Counter current flow (i.e. where the hot stream, liquid
or gas, goes from say left to right, and the cold stream, again
liquid or gas goes from right to left), is given by the following equation:
• And for Parallel flow (i.e. where the hot stream, liquid or gas, goes from sa
y left to right, and so does the cold stream), is given by the following equat
ion:
• T1 = Hot Stream Inlet Temp.

• T2 = Hot Stream Outlet Temp.
• t1 = Cold Stream Inlet Temp.
• t2 = Cold Stream Outlet Temp.
NTU METHOD
 The Number of Transfer Units (NTU) Metho

d is used to calculate the rate of heat transfer
in heat exchangers (especially counter current
exchangers) when there is insufficient in
formation to calculate the Log-Mean Temperat
ure Difference (LMTD).
 The method proceeds by calculating the heat ca
pacity rates (i.e. flow rate multiplied by specific
heat) C and C for the hot and cold fluids respect
h c
ively, and denoting the smaller one as C . min
 value of qmax is the maximum heat which could be transferred
between the fluids.
Effectiveness of Heat Exchanger
• E is then defined in terms of that maximum:
• E can be calculated using correlations in terms of the

'heat capacity ratio‘
• and the number of transfer units, NTU

Purpose of the performance test
• To determine the overall heat transfer coefficient for assessing the perfo
rmance of the heat exchanger.
• Any deviation from the design heat transfer coefficient will indicate occ
urrence of fouling.
Calculations
• Step A - monitoring and reading the steady state parameters
like temperature and pressure (inlet , outlet, hot and cold)
• Step B – with monitored data the physical properties of stream is determine

d like:
1. Density
2. Viscosity
3. Specific heat etc.
• Step C- The thermal parameters are calculated and tabulated like

the temperature and pressure range.
Calculations
• Step D – finally all the thermal parametrs are evaluated
like:
 Capacity
 Effectiveness
 NTU
 LMTD
 U = overall heat transfer by the use of various heat transfer f
ormulas.

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Radiation

 Is the mode of heat transfer electromagnetic wave.

 Anything whose temperature is above the surrounding will

 The Stefan- Boltzmann Law (otherwise known as fourth

Ludwig Eduard Boltzmann

 Reflectivity, r – is the fraction of the radiant energy reflected by

 Absorptivity, a – is the fraction of the radiant energy absorbed

 Transmissivity, t – is the fraction of the radiant energy

 Emissivity of any body – is the ratio of the rate of emission of

2. Calculate the radiation in Watts per square centimeter from a

Ans: 0.17 W/cm2

• This type of heat exchanger consists of a set of tubes in a container

• This is due to economy, because the heat exchanger tubes can be m

• Therefore a plate type heat exchanger, as compared to a similar ly si

• This is due to large r area the plates pro

• In counter-flow heat exchangers the fluids enter the

• In a cross-flow heat exchanger, the fluids travel roughly perpendicular

• The exchanger's performance can also be affected by the addition of

• The LMTD is a logarithmic average of the temperature diff

• T1 = Hot Stream Inlet Temp.

 The Number of Transfer Units (NTU) Metho

• E can be calculated using correlations in terms of the

• and the number of transfer units, NTU

• Step B – with monitored data the physical properties of stream is determine

• Step C- The thermal parameters are calculated and tabulated like

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