CHAPTER 2:

ACCELERATION & BRAKING

PERFORMANCE
DJA50080
VEHICLE DYNAMIC

By:
MUHAMMAD ZAKI BIN ZAINAL (017-4612364)
LECTURER
MACHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT, PUO
Sub Chapter

2.1 Power – limited acceleration.

2.2 Traction – limited acceleration
2.3 Basic equations
2.4 Dynamic wheel loads
2.5 Driving and braking
2.1 Power – Limited Acceleration
ENGINES
• The source of propulsive power
• Characterized by their torque and power curve (function of speed)
• Gasoline engine
• Torque curve that peaks in the mid-range of operating speed controlled by
the induction system characteristic
• Diesel engine
• Torque curve is flatter or even rises with decreasing speed
• Controlled by programming of the injection system, has led to the high-
torque-rise heavy-duty engine (commercial vehicle.)
• Major difference between two type engine is the specific fuel
consumption
• Gasoline engine  nearly 0.46 lb/hp-h (0.29 kg/kw-h)
• Diesels engine  nearly 0.36 lb/hp-h( 0.21 kg/kw-h)

Figure 2.1 Performance characteristic of gasoline and diesel engine

• Power and torque
• Power (watt; J/s)  Torque (Nm) x speed (rpm)
• Horsepower  =
• Power (kw)  0.746 x HP ; 1 hp = 550 ft-lb/sec

• From Newton’s Second Law:

•
where; M = Mass of the vehicle = W/g
= Acceleration in the forward direction
= Tractive force at the drive wheels
− Since the drive power is the tractive force time the
forward speed:

where;
g = Gravitational constant (9.81 m/)
V = Forward speed (m/s)
HP = Engine horse power
W = Weight of vehicle (N)
POWER TRAIN
 Starting with the engine, engine torque is measured at steady speed on a
dynamometer, thus the actual torque delivered to the drivetrain is reduce by
the amount required to accelerate the inertia of the rotating component.

Figure 2.2 : Primary

elements in the
power trains
 The torque delivered through the clutch as input to the transmission:

where ; = Torque at the clutch (input to the transmission)

= Engine torque at given speed (from dynamometer data)
= Engine rotational inertia
= Engine rotational acceleration

 The torque delivered at the output of the transmission.

where ; = Torque output to the driveshaft

= Numerical ratio of the transmission
= Rotational inertia of the transmission
 Torque delivered at the axles

where ;
= Torque on the axles
= Tractive force at the ground
r = Radius of wheels
= Rotation inertial of the wheels and axles shaft
= Rotational acceleration of the wheel
= Rotational inertia of the driveshaft
= Rotational acceleration of the driveshaft
= Numerical ratio of the final drive
 Now the rotational accelerations of the engine, transmission and driveline
are related to that of the wheels by the gear ratio

 Equation above can be combine to solve the tractive force available at the
ground.

 Thus far the inefficiencies due to mechanical and viscous losses in the
driveline component.
Effective inertia

 Acceleration performance of a vehicle

 An equation shown above can be used to calculate acceleration

performance by hand for few speeds, but when repeated calculation
required, programming on a computer is most often the preferred method.
 Figure 2.3 ; Tractive effort-speed
characteristics for a manual
transmission

 The constant engine power is equal to the maximum power of the engine which is
upper limits of tractive effort available, less any losses in the driveline.
 The tractive force line for each gear is the image of the engine torque curve
multiplied by the ratios for that gear.
 The curve illustrate visually the need to provide a number of gear ratios for operation
of the vehicle (low gearing for start-up and high gearing for high-speed driving)
 For maximum acceleration performance, the optimum shift point between gears is
the point where the lines cross.
 The area between the lines for the different gears and constant power curve is
indicative of the transmission in providing maximum acceleration performance.
Automatic Transmissions
 Provide different performance, more closely matching the ideal because of
the torque converter input.
 Torque converter are fluid coupling that utilize hydrodynamics principle to
amplify the torque input to the transmission at the expense of speed.

Figure 2.4 : Characteristics of a typical torque converter

 From figure 2.4, at zero output speed (speed ratio of zero) the output torque
will be several times that of the input. Thus the torque input to the
transmission will be twice the torque coming out of the engine when the
transmission is stalled, providing for good “off-the-line” acceleration
performance.
 As speed build up and the transmission input approaches engine speed, the
torque drops to unity

Figure 2.5: Tractive effort-speed characteristics for an automatic transmission.

 From figure 2.5, because of the slip possible with the fluid coupling, the
torque curves in each gear can extend down to zero speed without stalling
the engine.
 At low speed in first gear the effect of the torque converter is especially
evident as tractive effort rises down toward the zero speed condition.
 The intersection between the road load curve and any of the tractive effort
curves is the maximum speed that can be sustained in the gear.
 The actual ratio selected for the transmission may be tailored for
performance in specific modes - an optimal first gear for stating, a second
gear or third gear for passing and higher gear for fuel economy at road speed
(the best gear ratio usually fall close to a geometric progression, in which the
ratios change by a constant percentage from gear to gear) .

Figure 2.6: Selection of gear ratio based on geometric Figure 2.7: Gear ratios on a typical passenger car
progression
 Problem 2.1
The following information about the engine and drive train components for a passenger car
given:
Engine inertia, = 0.9 kgm²
Transmission
Gear 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th
Inertia (kg-m²), 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.07 0.04
Ratio’s, 4.28 2.79 1.83 1.36 1.00
Efficiencies 0.966 0.967 0.972 0.973 0.970

Final drive:
Inertia (kgm²), = 0.6 Wheel inertia, : Drive = 1.244 kgm²
Ratio’s, = 2.92 Non drive = 1.244 kgm²
Wheel size (r²) = 0.32m²
Efficiencies = 0.99
Calculate the effective inertia , mass effective and weight effective
of the drive train component in first, second, third, fourth and fifth
gear.
 Solution 2.1
Using this formula:
Ans:

Gear (kg.m²) (kg) (N)

1st 225.03 703.22 6898.59
2nd 86.00 268.75 2636.44
3rd 34.91 109.09 1070.17
4th 24.66 77.06 755.96
5th 14.37 44.91 440.57
 Problem 2.2
The parameter car are shows below:

Max engine torque, 154 Nm

Max engine power 45 kW
Rim radius 0.32m
Final drive ratio, 3.5
Mechanical Efficiency, 85%
Gear ratio, 1st = 2.25 2nd =1.5 3rd = 1.0 4th
=0.89
Determine the traction force of a car at an engine rotation of 2500 rpm in the 2 nd and 3rd
gear. Discuss the effect of changing gear ratio based on result
Solution
2.2 Traction – Limited Acceleration
Traction-limited Acceleration

Where; = Peak coefficient of friction

W = weight on drive wheels
Transverse Weight Shift due to Drive Torque

 Occurs on all solid drive axles, whether on the front or rear of vehicle.
 Basic reaction on rear axle
 The drive shaft into the differential imposes a torque , on the axle. The
chassis may roll compressing and extending springs on opposite sides of the
vehicle such that a torque due to suspension roll stiffness, is produce.
 Any different between these two must be absorbed as a difference in weight
on the two wheels.
 If the axle is of the non-locking type, then the torque delivered to both
wheels will be limited by the traction limit on the most lightly load wheel.

Figure 2.8: Free-body diagram of a solid drive axle

 K
 where; = total drive force from the two rear wheel
r = tire radius
= final drive ratio
= front suspension roll stiffness
= total roll stiffness
= weight on the right rear wheel
= coefficient of friction
= thread
Traction Limits

 Solid rear axle with a non-locking differential

 Solid rear axle with locking differential (independent rear suspension)

 Solid front drive axle with non-locking differential

 Solid front drive axle with locking differential (independent front drive axle)
 Problem 2.3
Table below shows the information of rear drive passenger
car.
Weight 9450 N (front)
8500 N (rear)
CG height 0.64 m
Coefficient of friction 0.62
Wheelbase 3.28m

Determine the traction-limited acceleration for the car with

a locking differential on a surface of moderate friction level
Solution
Problem 2.4
Find the traction-limited acceleration for the rear-drive
passenger car with and without a locking differential on a
surface of moderate friction level. The information that will
be needed is as follows:
Weights Front - 966 kg Rear – 851 kg Total – 1817 kg
CG height = 0.54 m Wheelbase = 2.75m Coefficient of friction = Thread = 1.5 m
0.62

Final drive ratio = 2.90 Tire size = 0.33m

Roll stiffness Front = 1560 N-m/deg Rear = 380 N-m/ deg

 Solution 2.4
Using solid rear axle with a non-locking differential

Ans: = 5420 N; m/
 Solid rear axle with locking differential (independent rear suspension)

Ans: = 5893.5 N; m/
Problem 2.5
Find the traction-limited performance of a front-wheel-drive
vehicle with locking differential on a surface of moderate
friction level
Weights Front - 897kg Rear – 529 kg Total – 1426 kg
CG height = 0.48 m Wheelbase = 2.66m Coefficient of friction = Thread = 1.52 m
0.62

Final drive ratio = 3.70 Tire size = 0.33m

Roll stiffness Front = 1288 N-m/deg Rear = 840 N-m/ deg

 Solution 2.5
 Solid front drive axle with locking differential (independent front drive axle)

Ans: = 4906.76 N; m/
2.3 Basic Equations
• The general equation for braking performance

where;
W = Vehicle weight
= = Linear deceleration
= Front axles braking force
= Rear axles braking force
= Aerodynamic drag
= Uphill grade
Constant Deceleration

 Simple and fundamental can be derived for the case where it is

reasonable to assume the force acting on the vehicle will be constant
throughout a braking application.
 In case where the deceleration is full stop, then is zero and X is stopping
distance, SD.
= Where;
 Time to stop = The total of all longitudinal deceleration force on
vehicle
= initial velocity
 Braking force = coefficient of friction
= Time for velocity change

𝑚 𝑣2
𝐹 𝐵=
2 𝑆𝐷
Deceleration with Wind Resistance

 The aerodynamic drag on a vehicle is dependent on vehicle drag factor

and the square of the speed.

Where;
= Total brake of front and rear wheel
C = Aerodynamic factor
Energy / Power

 Energy 

 Power  = FV
 Horse power 
Problem 2.6

Consider a light truck weighing 1672.1 kg, performing a full

stop from 96.6 km/h on a level surface with a brake
application that develops a steady state force of 920kg.
Determine the deceleration, stopping distance, time to stop,
energy dissipated and the brake horsepower at initial
application. Neglect aerodynamic and rolling resistance
forces.
Solution
Problem 2.7

A vehicle weighing 1700 kg, performing a complete stop

from speed 78 km/h on a level surface with a brake
application. Given that the friction coefficient between tire
and surface,µ is 0.63. Calculate the stopping distance and
braking force. Neglect the aerodynamics and rolling
resistance force.
Solution
Problem 2.8

For the vehicle described in the previous problem, calculate

the stopping distance taking aerodynamic drag into account.
Given aerodynamic drag factor is 0.04629 kg..
 Solution 2.8
 With aerodynamic effect

Ans: SD = 38.0 m
2.4 Dynamic Wheel Loads
Simple Vehicle Modal
• The vehicle is considered as one rigid body which moves along an
ideally even and horizontal road.
• At each axle the forces in the wheel contact points are combined in
one normal and one longitudinal force.
Three cases related to simple vehicle model:

∑ FX =ma
∑ FZ = 0
∑ MCOG = 0
 ∑ FX =ma
1

∑ FZ = 0
2

+ ∑ MCOG = 0
1 in 3

5 in 2

6 in 2 Static force Dynamic force

8
 Problem 2.9

 A car has a 890 kg mass. Its center, C, is 78 cm behind the

front wheel axis and it has a 235 cm wheel base. Find:
i.The force under each front wheel
ii.The force under each rear wheel
Solution
Problem 2.10

Reaction force under the front and rear wheels of a

horizontally parked car, with the wheel base, l = 2.34 m,
are:
FZ1 = 4000N
FZ2 = 3600N
Find the longitudinal position of the car’s mass center.
Solution
Influence of Grade

3
 1 in 3

5 in 2

𝐹 𝑧 2=𝑚𝑔
[ 𝑏 cos ∝+h sin ∝
𝑏+𝑐
+
] h
𝑏+𝑐
𝑚 𝑣˙

Static force Dynamic force

6 in 2

𝐹 𝑧 1=𝑚𝑔
[ 𝑐 cos ∝− h sin ∝
𝑏+𝑐 ]
−
h
𝑏+𝑐
𝑚 𝑣˙
 Try me!!!

a) Calculate Fz1 and Fz2 if the vehicle accelerates at 5m/s2 as

the net weight of the vehicle is 2500 kg, the wheelbase is
2875 mm, the height of the mass center is 280 mm. (b =
c)
b) By using specification given in (a), calculate the static
reaction force distribution on front and rear tire. Given
that during static condition traction forces Fx1=Fx2=0kN.
2.5 Driving And Braking
Single Axle Drive (Rear)
• With the rear axle driven in limit situations
Single Axle Drive (Front)
 With the front axle driven in limit situations
Single Axle Drive (Braking)
 With the rear axle braking in limit situations
 Braking
 The hypothesis between torque, brake force and radius
 From

 When brake force increase, torque also will increase

 When force increase, radius of the wheel will decrease
 When torque increase, radius of the wheel decrease
 Brake force is directly proportional to the torque
 Brake force is inversely proportional to the radius torque
 The relationship between torque, brake force, rotational
inertia and radius
 From

 When brake force increase, the total of braking torque and

rotational inertia will increase
 When force increase, radius of the wheel will decrease
 Brake force is directly proportional to the total torque and
rotational inertia
 Brake force is inversely proportional to the radius torque
 Tutorial 2.1
Table 1 shows the information of rear drive of a passenger car

Weight Front: 8500N

Rear: 3250N
Height of center gravity 1.42m
Coefficient of friction 0.72
Wheelbase 2.42m

Calculate:
i. Traction limited force,
ii. Traction limited acceleration,
Solution 2.1
 Tutorial 2.2
Table 2 shows the parameter of SUV

Calculate:
i. Traction limited force,
ii. Traction limited
acceleration,
Solution 2.2
 Tutorial 2.3
A light truck weighing 1875kg, performing a full stop from
110km/h on a level surface with a brake application that
develop steady state force of 9500N. Neglected aerodynamic
and rolling resistance forces. Calculate
i. Deceleration
ii. Stopping distance
iii. Time to stop
Solution 2.3
 Tutorial 2.4
A spot car with a mass of 2060 kg performing full stop from
250 km/h on a level surface with a brake application that
develops a steady state force of 35000 N. Carry out the:
i. Deceleration
ii. Stopping distance
iii. Time to stop
Solution 2.4