Java Programming

Exception Handling

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Types of errors Compile time errors Run-time errors

Compile time errors

All syntax errors will be detected and displayed by the Java compiler and therefore these errors are known as compile-time errors. Whereever the compiler displays an error, it will not create the .class file.

Compile time errors

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Missing semicolons Missing( or mismatch of) brackets in classes and methods Misspelling of identifiers and keywords Missing double quotes in strings Use of undeclared variables Incompatible types in assignments/initialization Bad references to objects Use of = in place of == operator etc.

Run time errors

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Dividing an integer by zero Accessing an element that is out of the bounds of an array Trying to cast an instance of a class to one of its subclasses. Passing a parameter that is not in a valid range or value for a method. Trying to illegally change the state of a thread Using a null object reference as a legitimate object reference to access a method or a variable Converting an invalid string to a number Accessing a character that is out of bounds of a string

Exceptions

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An Exception is a condition that is caused by a run time error in the program. When the java interpreter encounters an error such as dividing an integer by zero,, it creates an exception object and throws it(ie. It informs that an error has occurred) The purpose of exception handling mechanism is to provide a means to detect and report an exceptional circumstances so that appropriate action can be taken.. There are three stesp in exception handling. Find the problem(Hit the exception) Inform that an error has occurred(Throw the exception) Receive the error information(Catch the exception) Take corrective actions(Handle the exception)

Common java exceptions

Arithmetic Exception: caused by math errors such as division by zero ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException: caused by bad array indices ArrayStoreException: caused when a program tries to store the wrong type of data in an array FileNotFoundException: caused by an attempt to access a nonexistent file IOException: caused by general I/O failures, such as inability to read from a file NullPointerException: caused by referencing a null object. NumberFormatException:Caused when a conversion between strings and number fails. OutOfMemoryException:Caused when there is not enough memory to allocate an Object

SecurityException: Caused when an applet tries to perform an action not allowed by the browsers security setting. StackOverflowException: Caused when the system runs out of stack space. StringIndexOutOfBoundsException:Caused when a program attempts to access a nonexistent character position in string.

Try-catch statement.

Different Types of Programming

Proceedure Oriented Programming(POP) Object Oriented Programming System(OOPS)

Procedure Oriented Programming(POP)

It gives more emphasis on procedure than data. Main() is the most important part of POP Main() controls the entire program To reduce the complexity it can be modularised in to more than one sub functions. The main() controls the activities of entire sub functions. There has communication between main function and sub functions each other. The main function determines which sub function has to be functioned and which has to be stopped their activities. It is simple and needs less memory storage.

Disadvantages of POP

Less data security.

Object Oriented Programming System(OOPS)

Data is the most important factor in OOPS rather than function(procedure) Provides high data security Programs are divided into what are known as Objects Data structures are designed such that they characterize the objects Methods that operate on the data of an object are tied together in the data structure

The back bone of OOPS

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OOPS is working on the basis of 8 main factors Object Class Data Encapsulation Data Abstraction Poly morphism Inheritance Dynamic Binding Message Passing

Object

It is a basic runtime entity. Any living and non-living things can be referred as entity. It represents properties of entity.

Class

It is a user-defined data type. Object can be referred as an instance of class It is used to keep the data of an object safely. The each object of a class has same properties.

Data Encapsulation

Data Encapsulation is the process of keeping data from external functions, by class. For this purpose class uses access specifiers such as private, public, and protected.

Data Abstraction

Data Abstraction is the process of providing the data to the external function, by class. It provides the copy of the data , which is useful for the execution of the external functions. The original data will be kept in the class itself.

Polymorphism

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It is the process of operators and functions to execute an extra task besides its original task. There are two types of polymorphism. Compile Time Polymorphism Run Time Polymorphism If the polymorphism occurs during compilation, it is known as compile time polymorphism If the polymorphism occurs in runtime, it is known as runtime polymorphism

Inheritance

Inheritance is the process of deriving a class from another class. The derived class is known as child class or sub class The class, from which the child class has been derived, is known as parent class or base class. During inheritance, the child class inherits all the properties of parent class.

Different types of inheritance

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The different types of inheritance are: Simple inheritance Multiple inheritance Multilevel inheritance Hierarchical inheritance Hybrid inheritance

Simple inheritance

When a single child class inherits from a single parent class, it is known as simple inheritance.
Class A

Class B

Multiple inheritance

When a single class inherits from a pair of parent classes, it is known as multiple inheritance.
Class A Class B

Class C

Multilevel inheritance

When a class inherits from another class, which is already a child class of another class, the process is known as multilevel inheritance.
Class A

Class B

Class C

Hierarchical inheritance

This type of inheritance forms a hierarchy. There is a root class, from which more than one class will be generated. Another set of sub classes will be generated from the above sub classes and goes on.

Class A

Class B

Class C

Class D

Class E

Class F

Class G

Hybrid inheritance

It is the inheritance, which is a combination of multiple and hierarchical inhertiances. A root class generates two sub classes and from these sub classes another sub class is generated. Thus it forms cyclic.
Class A Class C

Class B Class D

Dynamic Binding

It is the process of connecting objects each other and its corresponding function calls ,when the program is running.

Message Passing

It is the process of communication done among the objects, with in the program.

Features of Java
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Java was developed by James Gosling in Sun Microsystems in USA in 1991. The main features of Java are: Compiled and interpreted Platform-Independent and Portable Object Oriented Robust and Secure Distributed Familiar, Simple and small Multithreaded and interactive High Performance Dynamic and Extensible

Compiled and Interpreted

Java has compiler and interpretor The java compiler compiles the java program and convert it to a class file. The class file contains byte codes The class file can be runnable in any operating system The java interpretor runs the java program and the class file is converted to .exe file, which is not persistent.

Platform independent and portable

Java is platform independent language. Ie. It can be run in any operating system. The byte codes of class file is accessible to all operating system and java can be run in any operating system. By the term portability, we mean that java can work with the different kind of environments provided by various operating systems.

Object Oriented

Java is purely object oriented.

Robust and secure

Java is a robust language It provides many safeguards to ensure reliable codes Java systems not only verify all memory access but also ensure that no viruses are communicated with an applet.

Distributed

It is used for creating network applications.

Simple, Small and Familiar

It is simple when we compare with c ,c++ Some of its statements are familiar with c,c++

Multithreaded and Interactive

Multithreading is the process of handling multiple tasks simultaneously.

High Performance

Java is an impressive for an interpreted language due to the use of intermediate byte code.

Dynamic and Extensible

Java is a dynamic language. It dynamically links with new class libraries, methods and objects.

Differences between Java and C

Java does not include statements goto, sizeof, and typedef Java does not contain the data types struct, union, and enum Java does not define the type modifiers keywords auto, extern, register, signed and unsigned Java does not support explicit pointer type.

Java does not have preprocessor statements. So we cannot use #define, #include, and #ifdef statements Java does not support any mechanism for defining variable arguments to functions. Java requires that the functions with no arguments must be declared with empty parenthesis and not with the void keyword as done in C Java adds new operators such as instanceof and>>> Java adds labelled break and continue statements. Java adds many features required for object-oriented programming.

Differences between java and C++

Java does not support operator overloading Java does not have template classes as in c++ Java does not support multiple inheritance of classes. It has been implemented by interface Java does not support global variables. Java does not use pointers. Java has replaced the destructor function with a finalize() function. There are no header files in java.

Java Development Kit

Javac: used for java compilation( java compiler) Java: used for java interpretation( running the program) Javadoc:creates HTML format documentation from java source code files. Javah: produces header files for use with native methods. Javap: java disassembler, which enables us to convert bytecode files into a program description Jdb: java debugger, which helps us to find errors in our programs.

Application Program Interface(API)

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It provides the environment to work java in a particular platform. It contains a lot of classes and methods. It is a class library. These class libraries are generally known as packages; Two types of packages: User-defined package Built-in package

User-defined packages are the packages which are created by user himself. Built-in packages are those packages, which are already defined in the API

Different types of APIs

Language support package: A collection of classes and methods required for implementing basic features of Java Utilities package: Contains a collection of classes to provide utility functions such as date and time functions. Input/output package: Contains a collection of classes used for input/output operations. Networking package: Contains a collection of classes used for network operations. AWT package: Contains a collection of classes used for graphics. Applet package: Contains a collection of classes used for applet programming.

Different types of Java applications

Stand alone applications Web-Applets.

Java Tokens

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Smallest individual units of a java program is known as tokens. Java language has 5 types of tokens. Reserved keywords Identifiers Literals Operators Seperators

Reserved keywords

It is an essential part of java programming language.

Identifiers

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They are programmer designed tokens, which are used for naming classes, variables, objects, labels, packages, and interfaces in a program. Rules for naming are: They can have alphabets, digits, and the underscore and dollar sign characters. They must not begin with a digit Uppercase and lowercase letters are distinct. They can be of any length.

Names of all public methods and instance variables start with a leading lowercase letter. Eg: average, sum When more than one word are used in a name, the second and subsequent words are marked with a leading uppercase letters. Example:dayTemperature, firstDayofMonth etc All private and local variables use only lowercase letters combined with underscores. Examples:length, batch_strength All classes and interfaces start with a leading uppercase letter(and each subsequent word with a leading uppercase letter) Variables that represent constant values use all uppercase letters and underscores between words.

Literals

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Literals in java are a sequence of characters(digits, letters, and other characters) that represent constant values to be stored in variables. The different literals used in java are: Integer literals Floating_point literals Character literals String literals Boolean literals

Operators

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They include Arithmetic operators Relational operators Logical operators Assignment operators Increment and decrement operators Conditional operators Bitwise operators Special operators

Arithmetic operators

Used for arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. The arithmetic operators are +,-,*, / and %.

Relational operators

They are used for expressing relationships. They are:<, <=, >,>=,==,!=

Logical operators

The logical operators are: &&, ||,! &&-> logical and operator. ||-> logical or operator !-> logical not operator.

Assignment operators

It is used to assign the values to a variable. = is the assignment operator.

Increment and Decrement Operators

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They are used to increment and decrement the values of a variable by 1. There are two types of increment operators: Post increment operators Eg: i++ Pre increment operators. Eg:++i Similarly there are two types of decrement operators: Post decrement operators Eg.:i-Pre decrement operators.Eg.:--i

Conditional operators

Otherwise known as Ternary operator The pair of operators ? : are known as Ternary operators. It is used in conditional expressions.

Bitwise operators

Bitwise operators are used for manipulation of data at values of bit level. These operators are used for testing the bits, or shifting them to the right or left. Bitwise operators may not be applicable to float or double.

Operator & ! ^ ~ << >> >>>

Meaning Bitwise AND Bitwise OR Bitwise exclusive OR Ones complement Shift left Shift right Shift right with zero fill

Special operators

Java supports two special operators Instanceof operator: This is an object reference operator and returns true if the object on the left hand side is an instance of the class given on the right hand side. Example: person instanceof Student Dot operator: It is used to access the instance variables and methods of class objects.

Constant

Constants are values to be stored in a variable.

Variables

It is a memory space where the constant values are stored.

Data Types in Java

Premitive(Intrinsic)

Non Primitive(Derived)

Numeric

Non-numeric

Classes

Arrays

Integer

Float

Character

Boolean

Interface

Different types of Control Structures

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Control Structure explains the flow of data in a program. There are 4 types of control structures: Sequential structure Decision structure Loop structure Case structure.

Sequential Control Structure

It is the normal programming style. In this case the execution of program takes place line by line.

Decision Structure

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In this case a particular condition has to be satisfied, to execute a particular block of statements. If the condition is true, then the entire block of statement will be executed. There are 4 types of Decision statements: If statement If-else statement Nested if statement Else if ladder

If statement

If the condition is true the entire block of statements is executed and thereafter control goes to the statement coming after if-block. If the condition is false, the entire block of statement will be skipped and control goes to the line which comes after the if block is executed. Syntax is : if(condition){ statement; }

If-else statement

In this case, if the condition is true the entire block is executed and goes to the statement coming after the if-else statement. If the condition is false, the contol goes to the else block and executes it. Thereafter the control goes to the statement coming after the if-else statement. Syntax: if(condition){ statement1; } else { statement2; }

Wrapper classes

Prmitive data types may be converted into object types by using wrapper classes.

Simple type Boolean Char Double Float Int

Wrapper class Boolean Character Double Float Integer

Long

Long

Primitive values to objects

Integer IntVal=new Integer(i); Float FloatVal=new Float(f);: Double DoubleVal=new Double(d); Long LongVal=new Long(l);

String

String is a class. It is used to store all types of characters including space. The difference of char and String is that in char only one character, which is a variable, can be stored at a time. But in String we can store not only a single character, but also a word or sentence which includes space. Syntax is: String stringName = new String(string);

String Arrays
It is used to store more than one string objects at a time. Syntax is: String item[]=new String[size];

String methods
The various methods, that are using in String class are S2=s1.toLowerCase;-Converts the string s1 to all lowercase S2=s1.toUpperCase;-Converts the string s1 to all uppercase S2=s1.replace(x,y);--Replace all appearances of x with y; S2=s1.trim();--Remove white spaces at the beginning and end of the string s1.

S1.equals(s2);-Returns true if s1 is equal to s2. S1.equalsIgnoreCase(s2);-Returns true if s1=s2, ignoring the case of characters. S1.length();-Gives the length of s1. S1.charAt(n);-Gives nth character of s1. S1.compareTo(s2);-Returns negative if s1<s2, positive if s1>s2, and zero if s1 is equal s2 S1.concat(s2);-Concatenates s1 and s2. S1.substring(n);-Gives substring starting from nth character. S1.substring(n,m);-Gives substring starting from nth character upto mth(not including mth) String.valueOf(p);-creates a string object of the parameter p(simple type or object)

P.toString();-Creates a string representation of the object p. S1.indexOf(x);-Gives the position of the first occurrence of x in the string s1. S1.indexOf(x,n);-Gives the position of x that occurs after nth position in the string s1.

StringBuffer

StringBuffer creates strings of flexible length that can be modified in terms of both length and content. We can insert characters and substrings in the middle of a string, or append another string to the end.

Methods using StringBuffer class

S1.setCharAt(n,x)-Modifies the nth character to x S1.append(s2)- Appends the string s2 to s1. S1.insert(n,s2)Inserts the string s2 at the position n of the string s1 S1.setLength(n)Sets the length of the string s1 to n. If n<s1.length() is truncated. If n>s1.length() zeros are added to s1.

Vector

Syntax to access class members

Objectname.variablename; Objectname.methodName();

Constructors

They are member methods, which are used to initialize the objects dynamically. The name of constructor is the class name itself. Constructor does not return any datatype even void. Constructor accepts parameters, from the object definition. The constructor which accepts parameters is known as parameterized constructor.

Polymorphism: Methods overloading

It is the process of defining extra task, besides its original task Java does not support operator overloading

Inheritance in java

Inheritance is the process of derTiving a class from other class Java does not support Multiple inheritance and hybrid inheritance To show inheritance java uses the keyword extends

Native methods

Native methods are those methods which calls the functions, which are defined in other programming language like c,c++ etc.

Garbage collector

Garbage collection is the process of automatically freeing objects that are no longer referenced by the program. This frees the programmer from having to keep track of when to free allocated memory, thereby, preventing many potential bugs. Thus making programmers more productive as they can now put more effort in coding rather than worrying about memory management. The disadvantage of garbage collector is it adds overheads. Because the JVM has to keep the constant track of the objects which are not referenced and then free these unreferenced objects on fly. This whole process has slight impact on the application performance.

Super()

It is the subclass constructor method which is used to call the super class constructor and its members. The syntax is super(parameter-list); Super() must always be the first statement executed inside a subclass constructor. The second form of super() always refers the super class of the subclass in which it is used. The syntax is super.member

Method overriding

Method overriding is a process of executing the member function of sub class by eliminating the result of the member function, which has same name and which has been defined in the base class.

Final Variables

The final variables are those variables , which can not be changed further. Syntax is : final datatype variablename;

Final Methods
Final methods are can not be redefined further.ie, They can not be overridden Syntax: Final returntype methodName() { statements;}

Final classes
Final classes are those classes which can not be inherited further(It may be a sub class of parent class) Syntax: Final class ClassName { Statements; }

Abstract methods
The abstract methods are those methods, which must be redefined. Syntax: Abstract returntype methodName() { statement; }

Abstract classes
Abstract classes are those classes which must be inherited further. Syntax: Abstract class shape { statements; }

Class loaders

Java was designed by thinking platform independency in mind. In order to work API, on different platform, the class libraries of each package should be loaded to the operating system not only from file system but also from FTP and HTTP. Class loader is the class responsible for finding and loading classes at runtime.

Types of class loaders

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There are three types of class loaders BootStrap Class loader, also called as primordial class loader Extenstion Class loader System Class loader

BootStrap class loader

BootStrap class loader loads those classes which are essential for JVM to function properly. BootStrap classes are responsible for loading all core java classes for instance java.lang.*, Java.io.*. Etc. BootStrap class loader finds these necessary classes from jdk/jre/lib/rt.jar. BootStrap class loader can not be instantiated from Java code and is implemented natively inside JVM.

Extension class loader

The Extension class loader is also termed as the standard extensions class loader is a child of the BootStrap class loader. Its primary objective is to load classes from the extension directories, normally located the jre/lib/ext directory.

System class loader

The System class loader , also termed as application class loader, is the class loader responsible for loading code from the path specified by the CLASSPATH environment variable. It is also used to load an applications entry point class that is the static void main() method in a class.

Working of class loaders

Extension class loader

Application requests a class

System class loader

Reflection API

It is a member of corejava.lang package. The methods provided by the Reflection API obtain information about a class, such as the fields, constructors, methods, and super classes of the class. In addition, we can obtain the interfaces implemented by the class.

Java Native Interface(JNI)

This also is used to execute a java program by using the functions , which are defined in other programming languages, like Java Native Methods.

JIT(Just In Time) compilation

When JVM compiles the class file, it does not compile the full class file in one shot. Compilation is done on function basis or file basis. Advantage gained from this is that heavy parsing of original source code is avoided. Depending on need basis the compilation is done. Such type of compilation is termed as JIT or just-intime compilation.

Multi threading

It is a conceptual programming paradigm where a program(process) is divided into two or more sub programs(processes), which can be implemented at the same time in parallel. A program that contains multiple flows of control is known as multithreaded program. It is a powerful programming tool that makes Java distinctly different from its fellow programming languages. Multithreading is useful in a number of ways. It enables programmers to do multiple things at one time. They can divide a long program(Containing operations that are conceptually concurrent) into threads and execute them in parallel.

Thread

A thread is a similar to a program that has a single flow of control. It has a beginning, a body, and an end and executes commands sequentially. All main programs in our earlier examples can be called single-threaded programs.

Main Thread

start start switching start switching Thread B

Thread A

Thread C

Creation of Threads

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A new thread can be created in two ways. By creating thread class: Define a class that extends Thread class and override its run() method with the code required by the thread. By converting a class to a thread: Define a class that implements Runnable interface. The Runnable interface has only one method, run(), that is to be defined in the method with the code to be executed by the thread.

Extending Thread class

Life cycle of a thread

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During the life time of a thread, there are many states it can enter. They include New born state Runnable state Running state Blocked state Dead state

New born
stop start

stop
Running yield suspend sleep wait Blocked Resume notify stop Runnable Dead

New Born state

When we create a thread object, the thread is born and is said to be in newborn state. But the thread is not under running state In order to activate a thread, we have to apply start() In order to kill the thread we have to apply stop() In order to create a thread , create the thread object. By using thread object, we can start and stop thread.

Eg: class MyThread extends Thread public void run() { statements; }

} MyThread t1=new MyThread(); t1.start(); t1.stop()

Runnable state

The runnable state means that the thread is ready for execution and is waiting for the availability of the processor. Ie. The thread has joined the queue of threads that are waiting for execution. If all threads have equal priority, then they are given time slots for execution in round robin fashion. The thread that relinquishes control joins the queue at the end and again waits for its turn. This process of assigning time to threads is known as time slicing.

Running state

Running state means that the processor has been given its time to the thread for its execution. The thread runs until it relinquishes control on its own or it is preempted by a higher priority thread.

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A running thread can be relinquished in the following situations. By using suspend(): It has been suspended using suspend(). A suspended thread can be revived by using resume(); By using sleep(): We can put a thread to sleep for a specified time period using the method sleep(time) where time is in milliseconds. By using wait(): It has been told to wait until some event occurs. This is done using wait(). The thread can be scheduled to run again using the notify().

Blocked state

A thread is said to be blocked when it is prevented from entering into the runnable state and subsequently the running state. This happens when the thread is suspended, sleeping, or waiting in order to satisfy certain requirements. A blocked state is considered not runnable but not dead and therefore fully qualified to run again.

Dead State

A running thread ends its life when it has completed executing its run() method. We can stop an active thread by applying stop().

Thread Priority
Each thread is assigned a priority, which affects the order in which it is scheduled for running. The syntax to set the priority is: threadObject.setPriority(number); The number is an integer value to which the threads priority is set. The thread class defines several priority constants: MIN_PRIORITY=1 NORM_PRIORITY=5 MAX_PRIORITY=10 The default setting priority is NORM_PRIORITY

Difference between runnable and extending Thread class

Thread is a class and runnable is an interface in java If a class is not extending another class we can use either extending Thread class or implementing Runnable interface. If our class is already extending another class we cant extend Thread class because java does not support multiple inheritance so we have left only one choice that is implementing Runnable interface When we extend a thread each of our threads has a unique object associated with it, whereas with Runnable, many threads share the same object instance.

Synchronization

If threads try to use data and methods outsides themselves, they may compete for the same resources and may lead to serious problems. Java enables to overcome this problem using the technique Synchronization The keyword synchronized helps to solve such problems by keeping a watch on such locations.

When we declare a method synchronized, java creates a monitor and hands it over to the thread that calls the method first time. As long as the thread holds the monitor, no other thread can enter the synchronized section of code. A monitor is like a key and the thread that holds the key can only open the lock.

Eg: synchronized void update() statements;

{ }

Runnable interface

Runnable interface is used to implement the features of Thread. It declares the run() that is required for implementing threads in programs.

Collection

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It is an interface defined in java.util package It is a group of objects Collection framework standardizes the way in which groups of objects are handled by the programs. Collection framework was designed to meet several goals. The framework had to be high-performance.ie the implementations for the fundamental( such as dynamic arrays, linked lists, trees, hash tables) are highly efficient.

2) The framework had to allow different types of collections to work in a similar manner and with a high degree of interoperability. 3)Extending or adapting a collection had to be easy.

Collection interface
Collection

List

Set

Sorted set

Collection

Enables to work with groups of objects; it is at the top of the collections hierarchy Extends Collection to handle sequences(list of objects) Extends Collection to handle sets, which must contain unique elements Extends Set to handle sorted sets

List

Set

SortedSet

Besides these interfaces Collection also use the Comparator, Iterator, and ListIterator interfaces Comparator defines how two objects are compared Iterator and ListIterator enumerate the objects with in a collection

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Collection interface includes two types of methods, which are optional, to provide flexibility. Modifiable methods Unmodifiable methods Modifiable methods are those methods used to modify the contents of Collection Unmodifiable methods are those methods , which do not allow the modification of the contents of Collection.