Unit 8:

Theoretical Perspectives in
Sociology
1. Functionalism/ Structural Functionalism, structural
Functional Perspective: basic assumptions.
2. Conflict Theory: basic assumptions.
3. Postmodernism: basic assumptions.
4. Implications of sociological theories in management /
business administration.
Sociological Theory;
1. Macro Level Theory:
- Society/ Social Structure/ Social System/ Objectivity
- Structural Functional theory
- Conflict Theory
- 19th – 20 th mid.
2. Micro Level Theory:
- Individual/ Subjectivity/ Actor/ Agent/ Agency
- Symbolic Interactionism
- Phenomenology
- Ethnomethodology
3. Micro-Macro linkage
- Structuration
- Postmodernism
 Sociological Perspective:
• Sociology is the systematic study of human society (Macionis, 2011).
• Sociology is one of a number of social sciences ( including economics,
psychology and human geography) that attempt to explain and
understand the behavior of human beings( Haralambos and Holborn,
2018).
• A theory is a statement of how and why specific facts are related. The job
of sociological theory is to explain social behavior in the real world
• A perspective can be defined as a way of looking at and seeing something.
• The sociological perspective reveals the power of society to shape
individual lives.
• The sociological perspective helps us assess the truth of “common sense.”
• It helps us see the opportunities and constraints in our lives.
• It empowers us to be active participants in our society.
• It helps us live in a diverse world.
• Peter Berger described the sociological
perspective as “seeing the general in the
particular.”
• C. Wright Mills called this point of view the
“sociological imagination,” claiming it
transforms personal troubles into public issues
• The sociological perspective shows us that the
society around us influences how we act and
even what we think and how we feel.
 Theoretical Perspectives in Sociology

1. Functionalism/ Structural Functionalism,

structural Functional Perspective: basic
assumptions.
2. Conflict Theory: basic assumptions.
3. Symbolic Interaction Approach: basic
assumptions.
4. Postmodernism: basic assumptions.
 The structural-functional approach
• Functionalism is the oldest of the main theories of sociology. It is a Macro
level theoretical perspective. It was emerged in 19 th century from Europe.
• Functionalism—or structural functionalism, as it is often called—is
rooted in the writings of Herbert Spencer and Emile Durkheim and the
work of such scholars as Talcott Parsons and R.k. Merton.
• The structural-functional approach is a framework for building theory
that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to
promote solidarity and stability
• Functionalism (structural functionalism) sees society as a structure with
interrelated parts designed to meet the biological and social needs of
individuals who make up that society.
• It explores how social structure- patterns of behavior, such as religious
rituals or family- work together to help society operate.
• Functionalism views society as a system of highly interrelated
structures or parts that function or operate together harmoniously.
• Functionalists analyze society by asking what each different part
contributes to the smooth functioning of the whole.
• Functionalism is a very broad theory in that it attempts to account for
the complicated interrelationships of all the elements that make up
human societies. In a way, it is impossible to be a sociologist and not
be a functionalist because most parts of society serve some stated or
unstated purpose.
• Functionalism is limited in one regard, however: The assumption that
societies are normally in balance or harmony makes it difficult for
proponents of this view to account for how social change comes about.
• Functionalism is simply a view of society as a self-regulating system of
interrelated elements (parts of society) with structured social
relationships & observed regularities.
• According to Abraham Francis- “Functionalism is simply a view of
society as a self regulating system of interrelated elements with
structured social relationships & observed regularities.”
 Key Assumptions:

• Functional Unity
• Functional Indispensability
• Functional Universality
• Structural Relationship
• Society is a stable rather than dynamic system
• Social Consensus rather than conflict
• Concept of function, dysfunction, latent function and
manifest function
• Interrelationship between parts, sub system, system and
structures
• Based on macro level theoretical orientation
1. Functional unity :
This view implies that the various parts of the social system must show a
high level of integration. All the organs or parts or components, like
organic body are interrelated or interconnected & interdependent with
each other by their function to maintain the structure as a whole for
their stability.
2. Parts, whole and structure:
Functionalism states a society is an integrated whole or different parts or
elements e,g individuals, institutions, norms, values, ceremonies,
marriage & groups. A society may be therefore called a sum (whole) of
its parts but in the second stage it is more than that as well. In this way
society becomes able to keep solidarity & stability.
3. High emphasis on consensus and de-emphasis on conflict :
The functioning of social system depends on consensus of its parts or
elements on common goals & values related to the basic needs of
society. Functionalists introduced the principles of homeostatic which
postulates or suggests that society maintains a states of equilibrium.
Parson’s views give emphasis on the entire social system as resting
heavily upon shared values.
4. Functional universality :
19th century anthropologists assumed that all standardized social or cultural forms have positive
functions, contributing to the regulation & maintenance of the system. Sometimes some of
the parts or components have to play the role of ‘survivals’ as the substitute contributors as
well.
5. Functional indispensability:
Mostly social components seek to contribute similar type of function to maintain the functional
entity, which cannot be removed from the whole. If a social pattern is well established, it must
be meeting some basic needs of the system & hence it must be indispensable or essential.
Social element cannot exist separately from the system; if any element or component
separates, as a result society also disintegrates.
6. Manifest, Latent & dysfunction
A. Manifest Function: Such types of functions are measured by their consequences those were
intensely done to meet the prescribed objectives. The participants are also aware of the
functions consequences. Those functions are made to the adjustment or adaptation of the
system.
b) Latent function:- This is a functional relation which is neither intended nor recognized. The
unintended consequences, of which the participants are unaware, lie under this category. It
refers to unintended & unrecognized consequences for a specified unit which contributes to its
adjustment & adaptation.
c) Dysfunction:-When functions get obstacles & cannot run, dysfunction emerges. Dysfunction is
that observed consequences which lesion the adaptation or adjustment of the system; what is
manifest to one may be dysfunction to other. The rain that is useful to the corps but may be
harmful to the picnic arranged by the others. Here harmful to the picnic is dysfunction.
 Functionalism of Emile Durkheim and Talcott Parsons:

Emile Durkheim (1858- 1917):

The most famous French sociologist. His theory sees society as a complex system of interrelated
parts, working together to maintain stability. He believed that individuals may make up society
but in order to study society, sociologists have to look beyond individuals to social facts.
• His major works:
1. The Division of Labor in Society (1893)
• Mechanical solidarity( Simple society)
• Organic solidarity ( Complex society)
2. The Rules of Sociological Method( 1895)
• Material social facts and Non Material social facts.
3. Suicide (1897)
According to Durkheim , suicide refers to“ every case of death resulting directly or indirectly from a
positive or negative death performed by the victim himself and which strives to produce this
result”
a. Egoistic Suicide: results from the lack of the integration of the individual into his social groups.
b. Altruistic Suicide: result from the over- integration of the individual into his social groups.
c. Anomic Suicide: result from
4. Elementary forms of Religious Life( 1912)
• Durkheim’s concern about religion lay in the fact that it was one of the main agencies of
solidarity and morality in society.
Talcott Parsons (1902- 1979):
He was an American sociologist of the classical tradition, best
known for his social action theory and structural functionalism.
He is considered one of the most influential figures in sociology in
the 20th century.
His major work: “ The Structure of Social Action(1937)”
Parsons builds up an elaborate model of systems and subsystem.
In order to survive, each system must meet four ‘Functional
• A= adaptation
• G= goal attainment
• I= integration
• L= latency or pattern maintenance
• The four systems (system of action): Cultural system, Social
system, Personality System and Biological System.
 Criticism of Functionalism
• influence declined in the 1960s and 1970s because
many sociologists believed that it could not adequately
explain the rapid social changes taking place at the
time.
• Many sociologists now believed that functionalism is no
longer useful as a macro- level theory, but that it does
serve as useful purpose in many mid- range analyses.
1. Lack of historical Analysis
2. High emphasis on solidarity
3. Society is not self-regulated system
4. Conservative Approach.
 The social-conflict approach
• Conflict theory is rooted in the work of Marx and other social critics of the
nineteenth century.
• Conflict theory proposes that each individual or group struggles to attain the
maximum benefit. This causes society to change constantly in response to
social inequality and social conflict
• It is a framework for building theory that sees society as an arena of
inequality that generates conflict and change. Unlike the structural-
functional emphasis on solidarity and stability, this approach highlights
inequality and change.
• According to Gillin & Gillin "Conflict is the social process in which individuals
or groups seek their ends directly challenging the antagonistic behavior by
violence or threat of violence.“
• According to MacIver and Page “Social conflict includes all activities in
which men contend against one another for any objective.”

• The structural-functional and social-conflict approaches share a macro-level

orientation, a broad focus on social structures that shape society as a whole
• Macro level theoretical perspective.
• It is a framework for building theory that sees society as an
arena of inequality that generates conflict and change.
• Sociologist uses the conflict approach look at ongoing conflict
between dominant and disadvantaged categories of people.
• It shows how inequality creates conflict and causes change.
• Karl Marx helped develop the social- conflict approach.
• Critics of Structural functional approach.
• Conflict theorist’s view conflict as an engine of social change.
• Karl Marx, Dahrendorf, Collins, coser etc are the main
theorists
• Key Assumptions:
1. Society is not a system of equilibrium.
2. Society itself dynamics.
3. Class conflict ultimately produced positive change of
society.
4. No society without conflict.
5. Conflict is a universal phenomenon.
6. Conflict is a continue process with violent and non
violent form.
7. Conflict is rooted in social structure.
8. Based on Macro level theoretical orientation
• Karl marx (1818- 1883):
• A German social theorist, founder of revolutionary communism and in sociology historical
materialism.
• Focused on the causes and consequences of class conflict between the bourgeoisie (the owners
of the means of production and the capitalists) and the proletariat (the working class and the
poor).
• His materialist approach claims that societies are define by their economic system.
• Class conflict is the conflict between entire classes over the distribution of a society’s wealth
and power.
• Marx traced conflict between social classes in societies as the sources of social change
throughout history. Marx focused on the role of capitalism in creating inequality and class
conflict in modern societies.
• Under capitalism, the ruling class (capitalists, who own the means of production) oppresses the
working class (proletarians, who sell their labor).

• mode of production:
Means of production(resources)
• Forces of production(Technology)

• In ancient societies: Master dominated slaves.

• In agrarian societies: Feudal dominated serfs.
• In industrial- capitalist societies: Capitalists dominate proletarians.
• Primitive mode of production( classless)
 Criticism of Conflict Theory
• It has been criticized because it tends to focus
on conflict to the exclusion of recognizing
stability. Many structures are extremely stable
over time rather than changing abruptly as
conflict theory would suggest
• Conflict perspectives are often criticized as
concentrating too much on conflict and
change and too little on what produces
stability in society
 Symbolic Interactionism :

• Micro level theoretical perspective.

• It provides the theoretical perspective that helps scholars examine the
relationship of individuals within their society.
• It is centered on the notion that communication through language and
symbols- is how people make sense of their social worlds.
• It studies how people, in everyday interaction, construct reality.
• Max Weber’s claim that people’s beliefs and values shape society is the
basis of the social –interaction approach.
• George Herbert Mead ( 1863- 1931) is considered one of the founders of
symbolic interactionism.
• Based on micro level theoretical orientation.
• It developed around the middle of the twentieth century.
• The symbolic-interaction approach, then, is a framework for building
theory that sees society as the product of the everyday interactions of
individuals
 Key Assumptions

1. Emphasized on the importance of understanding of the social

world from the individual points of view.
2. Focused on social behavior on everyday life situation.
3. Assumption of society as the product of the everyday
interactions of individual.
4. Focuses on how people view, describe and explain shared
meanings underlying everyday social life.
5. Emphasized on cognitive aspect.
6. Based on micro level theoretical orientation.
7. It developed around the middle of the twentieth century
 Criticism:
Research done from this perspective is often
scrutinized because of the difficulty of
remaining objective. Others criticize the
extremely narrow focus on symbolic
interaction.
 Post modernism:
• Modernity is the social patterns resulting from
industrialization.
• Modernization, then, is the process of social change
begun by industrialization.
• Postmodernism is an approach that attempts to define how
society has progressed to an era beyond modernity. Within this
era individuals are more likely to have a greater importance
placed on science and rational thought as traditional
metanarratives no longer provide a reasonable explanation for
postmodern life. In addition, a postmodern society traditionally
will have experienced globalization which means new religions
will be integrated into society.
• Postmodernism in sociology is an analysis of the social
and cultural features of late capitalism (post-
modernity), a critique of sociological theory as a
modernist project, and an extension of sociological
inquiry into new domains.
• The term postmodernism made its way into sociology
from literary theory and criticism in the 1970s; at the
same time, it was part of a wider innovative
movement in the discipline, continuing and
reformulating a series of important sociological topics.
• The key concepts of sociological postmodernism are
subject, identity, text, and symbol.
• The term postmodernity to refer to social patterns characteristic of
postindustrial societies.
• Postmodernism refers to the cultural traits of postindustrial societies.
• Postmodern criticism of society centers on the failure of modernity,
and specifically science, to fulfill its promise of prosperity and well-
being
• The term postmodernism has been used for decades in literary,
philosophical, and even architectural circles. It moved into sociology
on a wave of social criticism that has been building since the spread of
left-leaning politics in the 1960s.
• Although there are many variants of postmodern thinking, all share
the following five themes :
1. In important respects, modernity has failed.
2. The bright light of “progress” is fading.
3. Science no longer holds the answers
4. Cultural debates are intensifying
5. Social institutions are changing.
- Postmodernism are an intellectual movement
that became popular in the 1980s, and the ideas
associated with it can be seen as a response to
the social change occurring with the shift from
modernity to post modernity.
• For Jean Baudrillard (1929- 2007), the post-
modern age is a world where people respond to
media images rather than to real persons or
places.
• It is a thought that does not believe in finite,
unchanging, specific and certain principles for all.
• Post-Modernity refers to the view that the institutions and
ways of living characteristic of Modernity have been replaced
to such a profound extent that our society is fundamentally
different to the ‘modern’ society.
• In contrast post-modernism is a term that refers to new ways
of thinking about thought. Post-modernists believe that
knowledge itself needs to be understood in a different way to
modernists sociologists such as Functionalists and Marxists.
Five Key features of the post-modern society
1. Globalization
2. The Media
3. A world in Fragments (due to Dynamism: Rapid social change)
4. Consumer society: Individual freedom to choose one’s lifestyle
5. Cultural diversity and hybridity
 Key Assumptions:

1. It assumes that there is no underlying objective reality.

2. It assumes that everything is subjective and relative to
individual views, perceptions and values which varies
from person to person.
3. It assumes that there is no absolute preference point
to judge between right and wrong.
4. It assumes that universe is an open system.
5. It assumes that there is no knowledge apart from
language
 1. Fredric Jameson:
• He is an American literary critic and Marxist political theorist. He is best known for his
analysis of contemporary cultural trends, particularly his analysis of post modernity and
capitalism.
• Jameson’s best known book is “ Postmodernism, or, The cultural Logic of Late
Capitalism (1991)”
• Jameson attempts to characterize the nature of cultural production in the second half
of the 20th century. A substantial part of Jameson’s “postmodernism” is the dedicated to
differential analysis of works of art and architecture from what Jameson terms “high
modernism” and postmodern work. Postmodernism according to Jameson is a cultural
form which has developed in the wake of socio-economical order of present day
capitalism.
2. Jean Baudrillard (1929- 2007):
• He was a French sociologist and philosopher. His work is frequently associated with
postmodernism and specifically post- structuralism. He has become the exemplar of
postmodernism, beginning his analysis with Marxism and modernity, and developing
what he considered a more radical approach- a society of simulations, implosions and
hyper reality.
• For Jean Baudrillard (1929-2007), the post- modern age is a world where people
respond to media images rather than to real persons or places.
 Critiques of Post Modernism:

1. Postmodernism is an ideology not a theory: Post-

modernism is only ideological movement &
synthesis rather than a theory.
2. Exaggerative interpretation.
3. Rejection of all theories in sociology and
anthropology.
4. Ignore the historical success.
5. Meaningless analysis.
 Implications of Sociological Theories in
Management and Business Administration :
• Theoretical perspective is the way of analyzing and understanding social
world. It provides tool to unfold the social problems and help to give solutions.
• Economic world is not isolated from the social world and is highly influenced
by the social world.
• Sociological theories are designed to explain the relationship between the
observed facts and its causes of happening. For any business, it is essential to
study the case and effect relation with the help of theoretical perspectives.
• As economic world is also based on human social relationships and behaviors,
all the positive and negative changes occurred within it are the output of the
human social relationship and behaviors such as deviance, disorder, strikes,
movements, conflicts, prosperity etc.
• Business organizations have many functional units like a society. These units
have formed a structure which provides a good result to it. If these units do not
function properly, it results in financial setback or may collapse any time
• The occurrence of these aspects within economic world is related to
the nature of the society because human social relationship and
behaviors are the foundation as well as shaped by the social world.
• Everything that happens in the society has direct or indirect relation
with the business administration. Sometimes the workers fight for
their rights and have negotiation with the owner on the basis of
some sociological principles.
• We can analyze and understand different aspects of economic world
through the sociological theories by analyzing relationship between
causes of such happening.
• Emerging voice of marginal groups, issues of reservation, job
priority etc. is postmodern issues. We can have better understanding
of such issues on the basis of postmodern perspective.
• Issues of conflict and its solutions can be better understood from
Marxist social theory. So, theoretical perspective is a tool to
understand the relation among the different aspects of business
administration and management.