Ch.

3-Stress and
strain
during deformation
Case study 1: Manufacture of
can body stock - 1.
 The aluminium beverage can is familiar to almost
everyone.
 What is less familiar is the enormous engineering
effort required to achieve this dominant position and
the impressive technology associated with the
manufacture of beverage cans.
 It must be emphasized that a successful product is
only possible if there is a well engineered
manufacturing process, but in addition various
product attributes must be satisfied.
Introduction
 The ingot and continuous casting operations,
outlined in the Manufacturing – I, rarely yield a
finished product that does not need further
processing.
 Typically, ingots or strands are further
processed by one of several bulk deformation
operations, often followed by additional shaping
via sheet deformation, machining or joining.
 However, to analyze deformation processes, an
understanding of the relationships between
stress, strain and deformation is necessary.
 During metal deformation, large changes in part
geometry may occur.
 Externally, force and power are applied to
deform the part.
 Internally, the part reacts based on its
microstructure and properties.
 These internal and external effects can usually
be quantified to some degree by calculations
involving the stress-strain relationships of the
workpiece.
 So it is important to understand the
consequences of the geometrical shape
change on the internal structure of the metal.
 Initially, at low strain, a material deforms elastically
and there is a linear dependence of stress on strain.
At these low strains, Hooke's law applies: σₐ = Ee
where E is Young's or the elastic modulus.
 Eventually a point is reached where the engineering
stress-strain relationship is no longer linear.
 This represents the limit of proportionality, beyond
which the above equation no longer applies and the
material undergoes permanent plastic
deformation.
 For materials other than low carbon steels the
proportional limit is less well defined, because the
transition from elastic to plastic strain occurs
gradually.
 In these cases the 0.2% offset yield stress is
used to approximate the onset of plastic strain.
 To calculate the 0.2% offset yield stress, a line
intersecting the engineering strain axis at 0.002
strain (0.2% strain) is drawn parallel to the
elastic part of the engineering stress-strain
curve, as shown in above Fig.
 At strains beyond the yield point, plastic
deformation occurs.
 The engineering stress required to continue
extending the specimen increases due to strain
hardening, which results primarily from an
increasing dislocation density.
True Stress and True strain
 To account for the changing dimensions of the
tensile test specimen with load, the true stress is
defined as σt = F / Ai where Ai is the
instant are
 for the elastic deformation region the initial and
instantaneous areas are approximately the same, so
σ a ≈ σ t.
 once the yield point is reached, and plastic
deformation occurs, the difference becomes
considerable, the true strain (or incremental strain)
is defined as dɛ = dl / L =(L f – L o) / L o = (L f / L o) – 1
 Consider the small volume of the gauge length
where necking occurs, the length lo shown in the
above figure. The volume of material in the necked
region before deformation is equal to the volume
after deformation, or
 Ao lo = AF IF; or Lo / Lf = Af / Ao
 where: Ao is the cross-sectional area prior to
necking and AF is the mean cross-sectional area
after necking.
 Note that volume constancy is assumed during
deformation. Volume constancy is an important
characteristic of metal deformation for metal
deformation problems and will prove useful in the
solution of several problems in future Chapters.
 Now ɛ = ln ( Ao / AF)
 Usefulness of true strain
 A bar of 10 cm initial length is elongated to 20 cm in
three stages as follows:
stage 1 : 10cm increased to 12 cm
stage 2 : 12 cm increased to 15 cm
stage 3 : 15 cm increased to 20 cm.
 Assuming homogeneous strain in each stage
calculate:
 (a) the engineering strain for each stage and
compare the sum of the three engineering strains
with the overall value of engineering strain;
 (b) repeat part (a)for true strains.
Relationship between True stress and
Engineering stress
 ɛ = (L f / L o) – 1 → (L f / L o) = ɛ + 1
Taking Logarithm on both sides
 Ln (L f / L o) = Ln (ɛ + 1) → ɛt = Ln (ɛ + 1)
 Recall σa = F/ Ao & σt = F/ Ai
 σt /σa = Ao / Ai
 Taking Logarithm on both sides
 Ln (σt /σa)= Ln (Ao / Ai ) = ɛt = Ln (ɛ + 1)
 σt /σa = (ɛ + 1) → σt = σa (ɛ + 1)
Strain-Hardening
 We know that any material yields when the
magnitude of the stress is increased to a value
the yield stress.
 An increase in hardness and strength caused
by plastic deformation at temperatures below
the recrystallization range. Also known as work
hardening.
 For a strain-hardening material, the yield
strength increases and it depends on the
complete history of plastic deformation since the
previous annealing.
Strain Hardening Formula
 The plastic region of a true stress-true strain
curve for many materials has the general form of
the Hollomon equation, which is σt = K (ɛ)ⁿ
 where: n is the strain hardening exponent
K is the strength constant.
 Both n and K are material properties
 The strain hardening exponent physically
reflects the rate at which the material strain
hardens. To clarify the meaning of this, consider
the logarithmic equivalent of equation
 In σt = In K + n In ɛ
 Therefore, the stress increases rapidly with strain for
a material that has a large strain hardening
exponent, such as 302 stainless steel, compared to
a material where n is low, such as 410 stainless
steel.
 There is a similarity between Hooke's law, used to
describe the elastic response of a material to
mechanical load ( σ = Ee), and equation ( σt =K ɛⁿ),
used to describe the response of a material to
mechanical loads in the plastic region.
 The constants n and K are often found by plotting
the true stress-true strain data in logarithmic form
Physical Significance of Strain
Hardening
 If we apply a stress σ1 that is greater than the
yield strength (σy), it causes a permanent
deformation or strain. When the stress is
removed, it leaves behind a strain of ɛ 1.
 If we make a tensile test sample from the
metallic material that had been previously
stressed to σ1 and retest that material, we obtain
the stress-strain curve shown in Figure.
 Our new test specimen would begin to deform
plastically or flow at stress level σ1.
Properties verses Cold Work
Problem
 A 1-cm-thick copper plate is cold-reduced to
0.50 cm, and later further reduced to 0.16 cm.
Determine the total percent cold work and the
tensile strength of the 0.16-cm plate
 Solution:
 % CW = [(1-0.16)/1] x 100 = 84%
 and, from the above figure, the tensile strength
is about 565 MPa.
 We can also find the % Elongation = 80%
Designing a Cold Working proecess
 We can predict the properties of a metal or an alloy
if we know the amount of cold work during
processing.
 We can then decide whether the component has
adequate strength at critical locations.
 When we wish to select a material for a component
that requires certain minimum mechanical
properties, we can design the deformation process.
 We first determine the necessary percent cold work
and then, using the final dimensions we desire,
calculate the original metal dimensions from the cold
work equation.
For Example:
 Design a manufacturing process to produce a
0.1-cm-thick copper plate having at least 448
MPa tensile strength, 414 MPa yield strength.
 Solution:
From above figure, we need at least 35% cold
work to produce a tensile strength of 448 MPa
and 40% cold work to produce a yield strength
of 414 Mpa.
 Therefore, any cold work between 40% and 45%
gives the required mechanical properties.
Deformation Work
Hot Deformation
 By definition, hot working is deformation at
temperatures above one-half the absolute melting
temperature (the melting temperature in Kelvin).
 By contrast, cold working usually occurs at below
0.3 of the absolute melting temperature.
 because of the elevated temperature, sufficient
internal energy may be available to initiate dynamic
recovery or dynamic recrystallization.
 The combined effect of dynamic
recovery/recrystallization is to lower the stress
required for deformation.
FRICTION IN METAL FORMING
 In all machines incorporating parts with relative
motion, friction is present.
 Friction is a force that resists the motion caused
by another force on an object.
 The type of motion determines the different type
of friction, for example, sliding, rolling, and fluid
friction.
 The cause of friction is a combination of surface
roughness, molecular adhesion, and
deformation effects.
 In all forming processes, there is a sliding
motion along the interfaces between the
workpiece and the tools.
 Whenever sliding occurs between solids, a
friction resistance to the sliding motion can be
observed.
 The friction resistance causes damage to the
surface, which is mostly manifested in the
wearing of the surface.
 Friction is undesirable because it retards the
flow of the workpiece metal, promotes rapid
wear of the tools, and increases forces and the
power required to perform operations.
LUBRICATION IN METAL FORMING
 When a lubricant was applied to the shaft, Reynolds
found that a rotating shaft pulled a converging wedge of
lubricant between the shaft and the bearing.
 Because the lubricant is viscous, produces a liquid
pressure in the lubricant wedge that is sufficient to keep
the two surfaces separated.
 Generally, lubrication is classified into three major
categories:
 1. hydrodynamic lubrication (HL)
 2. elastohydrodynamic lubrication (EHL)
 3. boundary lubrication (the bodies are not
entirely separated).
 Lubrication in metal forming processes occurs
when opposing surfaces between tools and
workpiece are separated by a lubricant film.
 The applied load is carried by the pressure
generated within the fluid, and frictional
resistance to motion arises entirely from the
shearing of the viscous fluid.
 The lubricant serves not only to minimize friction
and wear of tools but also to cool the surfaces
by removing the generated heat.
 It does this by assisting sliding, and reducing
sticking, force, and power.