Carbon is found in the atmosphere, inside the earth’s crust

and in all living organisms.

Carbon is present in fuels like wood, coal, charcoal, coke,
petroleum, natural gas, bio gas ,marsh gas ets
Carbon is present in compounds like carbonates, hydrogen
carbonates etc.
Carbon is found in the free state as diamond, graphite,
fullerenes etc.
 CARBON
It has four electrons in its outermost orbit, so its
valency is four. Hence called TETRAVALENT
Carbon is a non-metal.

Is it stable?
IONIC COMPOUNDS ATTAIN STABILITY BY EITHER GAINING OR
LOSING ELECTRONS FROM THE OUTERMOST SHELL AND
FORMS IONIC BOND.

IN CASE OF CARBON , THE ATOMIC NUMBER OF CARBON IS 6,

ITS ELECTRONIC ARRANGEMENT IS 2,4, IT HAS 4 VALENCE
ELECTRONS AND NEEDS TO GAIN OR LOSE 4 ELECTRONS TO
ATTAIN NOBLE GAS CONFIGURATION.
If it were to gain or lose electrons –
(i) It could gain four electrons forming C4– anion.
But it would be difficult for the nucleus with six protons to
hold on to ten electrons, that is, four extra electrons due to
energy consideration.
(ii) It could lose four electrons forming C4+ cation.
But it would require a large amount of energy to remove four
electrons leaving behind a carbon cation with six protons in
its nucleus holding on to just two electrons.Due to its small
size the outermost electrons are strongly held by the nucleus.
 So it shares 4 electrons with other atoms to attain stability
resulting in the formation of covalent bonds. Since carbon
atom needs 4 electrons to attain stability, its valency is 4
and it is TETRAVALENT

X I
X
C X
_ C _
X
 Comparison between Ionic bonds and Covalent bonds
IONIC BONDS COVALENT BONDS

• High melting and boiling point • Low melting and boiling point

• Conduct electricity in solution • Poor conductors of electricity

and molten state

• Forces of attraction is very • Very low forces of attraction

strong
• Bonding give rise to ions • Bonding does not give rise to
ions
• Gaining or losing of electrons • Sharing of electrons takes
takes place in the outermost place in the outermost shell
shell of the atoms. of the atoms
 Covalent bond is chemical bond formed by the sharing of
electrons between atoms. The sharing of one pair of
electrons results in the formation of single covalent
bond, sharing of two pairs of electrons results in the
formation of double covalent bond and sharing of
three pairs of electrons results in the formation of triple
covalent bond.
Eg :- Formation of single covalent bond in Hydrogen molecule - H2
The atomic number of hydrogen is 1, its electronic
arrangement is 1, it has 1 valence electron. It needs 1
electron more to attain stability. So two hydrogen atoms
share 1 pair of electrons resulting in the formation of a
single covalent bond in hydrogen molecule H2.
H* * H * H H H H2
H *
The atomic number of oxygen is 8, its EC is 2,6, it has 6 VE, it
needs 2 electrons more to attain stability. So two oxygen
atoms share two pairs of electrons resulting in the formation
of a double covalent bond in oxygen molecule O2
XX XX
XX XX

O X X
O O
XX
X X
X X
XX
O O=O O2
XX X X XX

The atomic number of nitrogen is 7, its EC is 2,5, it has 5

VE, it needs 3 electrons more to attain stability. So two
nitrogen atoms share three pairs of electrons resulting in
the
formation
X of Xa Xtriple covalentX bond
X
X in nitrogen molecule N
2
NX N N N N N N2
X
X
X X X
X X X X
X X
1.Can you now depict a molecule of water
showing the nature of bonding between one
oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms?
Does the molecule have single bonds or double
bonds?
2. A molecule of ammonia has the formula NH3.
Can you draw the electron dot structure for this
molecule showing how all four atoms achieve
noble gas configuration?
Will the molecule have single, double or triple
bonds?
Methane molecule – CH4 Ethane molecule – C2H6
H H H
X X X

H X C X
H H X X
C X H
X X X X

H H H

H H H
I I I
H–C–H H –C –C –
H
I I I
H H H
 Allotropes of Carbon
In nature, pure carbon occur in two forms
• Diamond
• Graphite

What are Allotropes ?

• Allotropes are elements which are chemically
identical, but they differ in their physical
properties.
• Diamond and Graphite are two allotropes of
carbon differ in their physical properties.
 Why the physical properties of diamond and
graphite are so different?
• Due to the difference in the arrangement of carbon atoms in
diamond and graphite
• In diamond, each carbon atom is bonded to 4 other carbon atom
forming a rigid 3 D structure.
• In graphite, each carbon atom is bonded to 3 other carbon atoms in
the same plane giving a hexagonal array.
 Difference in Properties of
Diamond and Graphite

Property Diamond Graphite

Appearance Transparent Black, Shiny

Hardness Very Hard Soft, slippery to touch

Thermal Conductivity Very poor moderate

Electrical Conductivity Poor Good conductor

Density(kg/m3) High (3510) Low (2250)

Valency All 4 valence elelctrons are Only 3 out of 4 valence

involved in bonding electrons are involved in
bonding
3D structure Rigid tetrahedral structure Forms layers of hexagonal
array
Uses Jewellery, drilling Dry cell, electric arc,
lubricant, pencil lead
 Carbon forms a very large number of compounds. The number of
carbon compounds is more than three million. It is more than the
number of compounds formed by all other elements. This is because :-
1) Carbon atom can form bonds with other carbon atoms to form
long chains, branched chains and closed rings. This property of
self combinations is called catenation.
2) Since the valency of carbon is 4, it can form strong covalent
bonds with other carbon atoms or with atoms of other
elements like hydrogen,oxygen, nitrogen, halogens etc
I I I I I I I I I I C
_ _ _ _
C–C–C–C–C–C C–C–C–C C C
I I I I I _ I _I
C
I I C C C
I I
Long chain Branched chain Closed ring
 Why so many Carbon Compounds in nature?
Versatility of carbon is because it is chemically unique having the following properties:

CATENATION (Only carbon atoms have the ability to combine with other atoms of
carbon to form long chains)

TETRAVALENCY (Valency 4) capable of bonding with 4 other atoms of Carbon or

atoms of some other monovalent element.

SMALL SIZE OF CARBON ATOM (Enables strong bonds)

Classification of Hydrocarbons

HYDROCARBONS

SATURATED (SINGLE BOND) UNSATURATED

PARAFINS (LESS AFFINITY) (MORE REACTIVE)
ALKANES
FORMULA - CnH2n+2

ALKENE
ALKYNE
(DOUBLE BOND) (TRIPLE
BOND)
OPEN CHAIN CLOSED CHAIN FORMULA – CnH2n - CnH2n-2
(CYCLIC COMPOUND)

STRAIGHT BRANCHED
CHAIN CHAIN
 i) Hydrocarbons :- are compounds containing carbon and
hydrogen atoms.

ii) Saturated hydrocarbons :- are hydrocarbons having all

single covalent bonds between the carbon atoms.
Eg : Alkanes :- have all single covalent bonds between the carbon
atoms and their names end with – ane.

H H. H
I. I
I Ethane – C2H6 H–C–C–H
Methane – CH4 H–C I I
–H H H
I
H
iii) Unsaturated hydrocarbons :- are hydrocarbons having a double or
triple covalent bond between two carbon atoms. Eg : Alkenes and
Alkynes.
Alkenes :- have a double covalent bond between two carbon
atoms. and their names end with – ene.

H H H H
I I I I H
Ethene - C2H4 C=C Propene – C3H6 H – C – C – C
I I I H
H H H
Alkynes :- have a tripl e covalent bond between two carbon atoms d
their names end with –anyne.

Ethyne – C2H2 H–CΞC– Propyne - C3H4

H
Carbon compounds having the same molecular
formula but different structural formulae are
called isomers. This property is called
isomerism.
A skeletal structure is a graphical representation of the arrangement of
atoms and bonds in a molecule.
• C
• C---C---C----C OR C—C
• C
 Eg:- Butane – C4H10 has 2 isomers. They are Normal butane and Iso
butane.

H H H H H H H
I I I I I I I
H–C–C–C–C–H H–C–C–C–H Iso butane
I I I I I
I H H
H H H H H–C–H
Normal butane I
H
Pentane – C5H12 has 3 isomers. They are Normal
pentane, Iso pentane and Neo pentane
• As the number of carbon atoms in an alkane molecules increases, the
number of possible isomers increases rapidly.
 An atom or a group of atoms which decides the properties of
a
carbon compound
i) Halide ( Halo is called:-a functional
group) group.
- Cl, - Br, etc. ( Names end with –
ane )
Eg :- CH3Cl – Chloro methane, C2H5Br – Bromo ethane

Eg :- CH:-
ii) Alcohol 3OH –- Methanol,
OH ( NamesC2end
H5OH – Ethanol
with – ol )

H
iii) Aldehyde :- - CHO -C ( Names end with – al )
O
Eg :- HCHO – CH3CHO – Ethanal
Methanal,
iv) Carboxylic acid :- - COOH - C - OH
(Names end with – oic acid ) Eg :- HCOOH – Methanoic
acid, CH3COOH – Ethanoic acid
v) Ketone :- - - C - (Names end with –
CO one )
II
Eg :- CH3COCH3 – Propanone
O , CH3COC2H5 - Butanone
 Homologues series
Homologus series is a group of carbon compounds having similar
structures, similar chemical properties and whose successive
members differ by a – CH2 group. Eg :- Alkanes, Alkenes, Alkynes etc.

Alkanes :- have general molecular formula CnH2n+2 . Their names end

with – ane and the members are as follows :-

Methane - CH4
Ethane - C 2H 6
Propane - C 3H 8
Butane - C4H10
Pentane - C5H12
H

I
Methane :– CH4 H – C –
H
H. H I H. H
I. I H
Ethane :– C2H6 H–C–C–H H
Propane – C3H8 H – CI. – CI – C – H
I I I I I
H H H H I H
Alkenes have general molecular formula CnH2n . Their names end
with – ene and the members are as follows :-

Ethene - C2H4
Propene - C3H6
Butene - C4H8
Pentene - C5H10

H. H
I. I
Ethene :- C2H4 C=C
I I
H H
H. H H. H H
H H
Propene :- C3H6 I. = C
H–C I –C–H Butene :- C4H8 H – CI. = CI – CI – CI – H
I I I I
H H H
 Alkynes have general molecular formula CnH 2n – 2 .Their names end
with – yne and the members are as follows :-

Ethyne :- C2H2 H–C C–H

H

Propyne :- C3H4 H– I
C C–C–H
I
HH
H
Butyne :- C4H6 H–C I –C–
C–C
H II I
H H
AFTER THIS DELETED
PORTION FOR 20-21 BATCH
a) Combustion :-
Carbon compounds burn in oxygen to form water, carbon dioxide,
heat and light.
Eg :- C + O2 CO2 + heat + light
CH4 + 2O2 2H2O + CO2+ heat + light
C2H5OH + 3O2 3H2O + 2CO2 heat +
light

b) Oxidation :-
Carbon compounds like alcohols are oxidised to carboxylic acids
on heating with oxidising agents like alkaline Potassium
permanganate
– KMnO4 or acidic potassium dichromate - K2Cr2O7 .
Eg:- Alcohols are oxidised to Carboxylic acids
C2H5OH alkaline KMnO4 + heat CH3COOH
Ethanol acidic K2Cr2O7 + heat Ethanoic acid
c) Addition
reaction :-
Unsaturated hydrocarbons undergo addition reaction with hydrogen in the
presence of nickel or palladium as catalyst to form saturated hydrocarbons.
Eg:- Ethene undergoes addition reaction with hydrogen to form ethane in the
presence of nickel or palladium as catalyst.
Ni or Pd catalyst
C2H4 + H2 C2H6
H. H H H
I. I Ni or Pd catalyst I
C = C + H2 H–C–C–H
I I II I
H H H H
The addition of hydrogen to unsaturated hydrocarbons to form saturated
hydrocarbons is called hydrogenation. Hydrogenation is used to convert
unsaturated oils and fats to saturated oils and fats.
d) Substitution reaction :-
Saturated hydrocarbons undergo substitution reaction with halogens to
form substitution products.
Eg :- Methane undergoes substitution reaction with chlorine in the
presence
CHof4 +sunlight
Cl2 to formCH
substitution
3Cl + HCl
products.
CH3Cl + Cl2 CH2Cl2 + HCl
CH2Cl2 + Cl2 CHCI3 + HCl CHCI3 + Cl2 CCl4 + HCl
11) Some important carbon compounds :-
a) ETHANOL :- C2H5OH - Ethyl alcohol

Properties :-
i) Ethanol is a colourless liquid with a pleasant smell and
burning taste.
ii) It is soluble in water.
iii) Ethanol reacts with sodium to form sodium ethoxide and
hydrogen. 2C2H5OH + 2Na 2C2H5ONa + H2
iv) Ethanol reacts with hot conc. H2SO4 to form ethene and water. Conc.
H2SO4 is a dehydrating agent and removes water from ethanol.
conc. H2SO4
C2H5OH C 2 H 4 + H 2O

Uses :-
i) Ethanol is used for making alcoholic drinks.
ii) It is used as a solvent.
iii) It is used for making medicines like tincture iodine, cough syrups,
tonics etc.
b) ETHANOIC ACID :- CH3COOH – Acetic
acid
Properties :-
i) Ethanoic acid is a colourless liquid with a pungent smell and sour taste.
ii) It is soluble in water.
iii) A solution of 5% to 8% ethanoic acid in water is called Vinegar.
iv) Esterification :-
Ethanoic acid reacts with ethanol to form the ester ethyl ethanoate in the presence
of conc. H2SO4.
conc.H2SO4
CH3COOH + C2H5OH CH3COOC2H5 + H2O
The reaction between carboxylic acid and alcohol to form an ester is called
esterification.
v) Saponification :-
When an ester reacts with sodium hydroxide solution, the sodium salt of the
carboxylic acid and the parent alcohol are formed. This reaction is called
saponification.
Eg :-Ethyl ethanoate reacts with sodium hydroxide to form sodium acetate
and ethanol.
CH3COOC2H5 + NaOH CH3COONa + C2H5OH
vi) Ethanoic acid reacts with bases to form salt and water.
CH3COOH + NaOH CH3COONa + H2O
vii) Ethanoic acid reacts with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates to form salt,
2CH
water 3COOH + Na2CO3 2CH3COONa + H2O + CO2
CH
and3COOH
carbon+ dioxide.
NaHCO3 CH3COONa + H2O + CO2
Soaps :- Soaps are long chain sodium or potassium salts of carboxylic
acids. Eg:- Sodium stearate – C17H35COONa

Structure of soap molecule :- A soap molecule has two parts. A long

hydrocarbon part which is hydrophobic (water repelling) and soluble in oil and
grease and a short ionic part which is hydrophyllic (water attracting) and
insoluble in oil and grease.
COO Na +

Hydrocarbon part Ionic part

(Water repelling) (Water attracting)

Cleansing action of soap :- When soap is dissolved in water it forms

spherical structures called micelles. In each micelle the soap molecules are
arranged radially such that the HC part is towards the centre and the ionic part
is towards the outside. The HC part dissolves the dirt, oil and grease and forms
an emulsion at the centre of the micelles which can be washed away by water.
b) Detergents :-
Detergents are long chain sodium salts of sulphonic acids.
Soaps do not wash well with hard water because it forms insoluble
precipitates of calcium and magnesium salts in hard water.
Detergents wash well with hard water because it does not form insoluble
precipitates of calcium and magnesium salts in hard water.

Soaps Detergents
Soaps are sodium salts of fatty Detergents are sodium salts of
acids. sulphonic acids.
Soaps clean well in soft water Detergents clean well with both
but do not clean well in hard hard and soft water.
water.
Soaps do not clean as well as Detergents clean better than
detergents. soaps.
Soaps are biodegradable and do Some detergents are non
not cause pollution. biodegradable and
cause pollution.