Food Preservation

Food Spoilage

• Spoilage is the process in which food deteriorates to the

point in which it is not edible to humans or its quality of
edibility becomes reduced.

• Various external forces are responsible for the spoilage of

food.

• Foods decompose due to attacks from enzymes, oxidation

and microorganisms. These include bacteria, mold, and
yeast.
Food Spoilage
Chemical Changes:

• Chemical reactions or changes also contribute to food

deterioration.

• Enzymes play a significant role in catalyzing these reactions

– Proteases, also called proteolytic enzymes, split proteins
into smaller compounds.
Preservation:
Importance of food preservation:

• Preservation takes care of the excess produce.

• Preservation adds variety to our meals.
• Preserved food items are sent to places where they are not
grown.
• Preservation of foods makes transportation and storage of
foods easier.
In accomplishing the preservation of foods
by the various methods, the following
methods are involved
• Principles of Food Preservation:
Prevention of damage
Prevention and delay
because of insects,
animals,
of self decomposition
mechanical cause etc. of food

Prevention or delay of
microbial decomposition
• Prevention from microbial decomposition
1. By keeping out microorganisms(asepsis)
2. By removal of microorganisms(filtration)
3. By hindering the growth and activity of microorganisms, e.g. by
low temperature, drying anaerobic conditions, or chemicals.
4. By killing the microorganisms. e.g. heat and radiation.
• Prevention and delay of self decomposition of
food:
1.By destruction or inactivation of food enzymes.
E.g. by blanching.
2.By prevention or delay of purely chemical
reactions. E.g. prevention of oxidation by means
of antioxidants.

• Prevention of damage because of insects,

animals, mechanical cause etc.
•
Food Preservation Methods
• Physical Methods
• Chemical Methods
• Radiation
Asepsis or keeping out microorganisms:
• The inner tissue of healthy plants and animals are usually free
from microorganisms, and if any microorganisms are present they
are unlikely to initiate spoilage.

• If protective covering occurs it prevent food microbial

contamination . Example of such covering are the shells of nuts,
the skin of fruits and vegetables, the shells of eggs and the skin,
membrane or fat on meat or fish (These are the example of
natural asepsis or keeping out microorganisms).
When the protective covering has been damaged or
decomposition has spread from the outer surface that the
inner tissue are subjected to decomposition by
microorganisms.
Asepsis ctd………..
• The aseptic process began in 1914 with the development of
sterile filters for use in the wine industry.

• The cans and lids were sterilized with superheated steam, and
the sterilized containers were filled with the sterile liquid food.
The lids were then sealed in an atmosphere of superheated steam.

• Packaging of food is a widely used application of asepsis. The

covering may range from a wrapping, which prevent primarily
contamination during handling.

• By the 1980s hydrogen peroxide was being used throughout

Europe and the United States for the sterilization of
polyethylene surfaces.
2. Removal of Microorganisms:
• For the most part removal of microorganisms is not very
effective in food preservation, but under special conditions it
may be helpful. Removal may be accomplished by means of
filtration, centrifugation (sedimentation and clarification),
washing or trimming.

• Filtration is the only successful method for complete removal

of organisms and its used is limited to the liquids. The liquid
is filter through a sterilized “bacteriaproof” filter made of
sintered glass, membrane pads and liquid is forced through
pressure.

• This method has been used successfully with fruit

juices,beer, soft drinks, wine and water.
Removal of Microorganisms ctd…
• Centrifugation or sedimentation, gently is not very effective,
in that some but not all microorganisms are removed
sedimentation is used in the treatment of drinking water.

• Centrifugation (clarification) applied to milk to take out other

suspended materials, although centrifugation at high speed
remove most of the spores.
Removal of Microorganisms ctd…
Washing raw foods can be helpful in their preservation but may
be harmful under some conditions (Washing food may be
dangerous if the water adds spoilage microorganisms or increase
the moisture so that growth of spoilage organisms encourage)

Washing cabbage or cucumbers before their fermentation into

sauerkraut and pickles respectively removes most of the soil
microorganisms on the surface .

Washing fresh fruits and vegetables removes most of the soil

microorganisms on the surface that may be resistant to heat
process.
Removal of Microorganisms ctd…
• Trimming away spoiled portions of food or
discarding spoiled samples is important from the
standpoint of food law and may be helpful in
food preservation. Although large number of
microorganisms are removed in this way.
Food Preservation with modified Atmospheres
• A preservative factor in sealed, packaged foods may be the
anaerobic conditions in the container.

• A complete fill or replacement of air by carbon dioxide or by an

inert gas such as nitrogen will bring about anaerobic conditions.

• Spore of some of the aerobic spore former are especially

resistant to heat and may survive in canned food but be unable
to germinate or grow in absence of oxygen.

• Production of carbon dioxide during fermentation and

accumulation at the surface will serve to make conditions
anaerobic there and prevent the growth of bacteria.
Hypobaric (Low Pressure)
Storage
• Foods are stored in air under low pressure, low temperature,
and high humidity.
• The hypobaric state results in reduced concentrations of O2,
which also results in reduced fat oxidation.
• Atmospheres of about 10 mm Hg have been found to be
effective for meats and seafoods;
• 10-80 mm Hg for fruits and vegetables; and
• 10-50 mm Hg for cut flowers (1 atm = 760 mmHg).
• In one study using pork loins, a pressure of 10 mm Hg along
with a temperature of 00F and 95% humidity was up to six
times more effective than air storage on shelf life.
• This method was first outlined around 1960 by Stanley Burg,
and a commercial hypobaric container was developed in 1976
4. Use of High Temperature:
• Heat is one of the oldest methods of destroying
microorganisms in food processing and preservation.

• The greatest advance in food hygiene was inadvertently

made when humans discovered the advantage of boiling,
roasting, baking and other heat treatments of food, hence
preserving the food for longer periods

• Thermal processing is defined as the combination of

temperature and time required to eliminate a desired number
of microorganisms from a food product.

• Killing of microorganisms by high temperature is supposed

to be caused by denaturation of the proteins and especially
by the inactivation of enzyme required for metabolism.
Use of High Temperature Ctd…
Some of the methods of heat treatment used for food preservation
are discussed below.
Cooking/boiling :
• Boiling is the process of applying heat to water until the
temperature reaches about 100°C.
• All microorganisms, the vegetative cells of bacteria, yeasts and
moulds are generally quickly destroyed at temperatures of 100°C or
above.
• Spores of some bacteria are extremely resistant to heat and are not
killed at this temperature, although their growth is prevented.

• The spores of Clostridium botulinum, which causes botulism, are

extremely heat-resistant; the toxin produced by this organism is
readily destroyed by boiling. However, some toxins produced by
other bacteria such as staphylococci are not easily inactivated.
Use of High Temperature Ctd…
Pasteurisation
• Pasteurisation is named after its inventor, Louis Pasteur, a French
chemist.Pasteurisation is a process of heat treatment of milk, beer
and some other beverages.
• Pasteurisation is a very useful method when more rigorous heat
treatment could harm the quality of the product, as in the case of
milk, and when the aim is to kill only the pathogens that are not
very heat-resistant.
• Normally milk is pasteurized at 62.8°C for at least 30 minutes or at
71.7°C for at least 15 seconds, or, if using ultra-high temperature
(UHT), at 135°C for 1–2 seconds. UHT milk is sterilized, meaning
all forms of life are destroyed. This extends its storage time but does
affect the taste.
• These treatments are equivalent, and are sufficient to destroy the
most heat resistant of the nonspore forming pathogenic organisms-
Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Coxiella burnetti.
Use of High Temperature Ctd…
Blanching
• Blanching is a mild pre-cooking operation which can reduce
the bacterial load on vegetables by 90%.
• It means the application of boiling water or steam for a
short time.

• Blanching vegetables prior to canning, freezing or drying

helps to remove soil, insects and microorganisms, and
destroys or slows the action of enzymes.

•
Use of High Temperature Ctd…
Canning
• Canning is one of the most widely used
modern methods of processing and preserving
food.

• It involves the careful preparation of food

packed into a sealed tin, glass or plastic
container which is subjected to defined high
temperatures (above 100ºC) for an appropriate
period of time, and then cooled.
Low-temperature preservation

• Storage at low temperatures prolongs the shelf life of

many foods.

• In general, low temperatures reduce the growth rates

of microorganisms and slow many of the physical and
chemical reactions that occur in foods.

• The use of low temperatures to preserve foods is based

on the fact that the activities of food borne
microorganisms can be slowed at temperatures above
freezing and generally stopped at subfreezing
temperatures.
Low-temperature preservation(ctd…)
• The reason is that all metabolic reactions of microorganisms are
enzyme catalyzed and that the rate of enzyme-catalyzed
reactions is dependent on temperature. With a rise in
temperature, there is an increase in reaction rate. The
temperature coefficient (Q10) may be generally defined as
follows:
Q10= (Velocity at a given temp+100)
Velocity at T
• The Q 10 for most biological systems is 1.5–2.5, so that for
each 10°C rise in temperature within the suitable range,
there is a twofold increase in the rate of reaction. For every
10°C decrease in temperature, the reverse is true.
• A low storage temperature of at least -12°C is
important if prolonged storage life is desired without
losing flavor.

• Vegetables with a high moisture content do not

freeze well because freezing makes these vegetables
soft.
Drying:
• This is a dehydration process by which the water/moisture
content of the food is removed or decreased.

• Pathogenic and other bacteria cannot multiply in the absence of

water. Drying, however, may not kill spores.

• Drying also achieves food preservation by inactivating enzymes.

• Drying or evaporation methods have been applied to nearly every

kind of watery food, including milk.

• The loss in vitamins and nutritional value is usually minor, some

foods change physically and chemically, and are sometimes
altered in natural colour and flavour.
 Commercial Drying
• The most important types of commercial
drying are:
– Conventional: heat.
– Vacuum: pulls the water out.
– Osmotic: water drawn out by osmosis.
– Freeze-drying: ice crystals vaporize.
(Sublimation: The process in which a solid
changes directly to a vapor without passing
through the liquid phase.)
Chemical Methods of Food preservation,
Benzoic Acid
• Benzoic acid (C6H5COOH) occurs naturally in many types
of berries, plums, and some spices.

• Sodium benzoate was the first chemical preservative

permitted in foods by the FDA, and it continues in wide use
today in a large number of foods.

• The un dissociated form of benzoic acid is most

effective antimicrobial agent.
– pKa of 4.2; optimum pH range is from 2.5 to 4.0

 This makes it an effective antimicrobial in high-acid

foods, fruit drinks, cider, carbonated beverages, and
pickles.
Benzoic Acid
 Undissociated benzoic acids enter into the bacteria by
passive diffusion.

 The acids will dissociate inside the bacteria and lower the
bacteria internal pH, leading to situations that will stop the
growth of bacteria.

 More over, the anionic part of the organic acids that cannot
escape the bacteria will accumulate within the bacteria and
disrupt many metabolic functions, leading to osmotic
pressure increase, incompatible with the survival of the
bacteria.
 It is also used in salad dressings, soy sauce, and jams.
 Carcinogen Concern

Sodium benzoate can react with ascorbic acid, or vitamin C, to

create benzene.
Benzene is a carcinogen in nature
Parabens
• Parabens are alkyl esters of p-hydroxybenzoic acid.

• The alkyl groups may be one of the following

– Methyl, ethyl, propyl, Butyl, or heptyl

• Parabens are colourless, tasteless, and odorless.

• They are nonvolatile and nonhygroscopic.

• Their solubility in water depend on the nature of the alkyl

group
– The longer the alkyl chain length, the lower the
solubility
Parabens
• The antimicrobial activity in parabens is proportional to the
chain length of the alkyl group.

• They differ form benzoic acid in that they have antimicrobial

activity in both acid and alkaline pH regions.

• Parabens are more active against molds and yeast than

against bacteria (more active against gram-positive than gram-
negative bacteria.)

• They are used in fruitcakes, pastries, and fruit fillings

 Parabens
 Parabens appear to act mainly at the cell membrane by
disturbing the force and affecting energy transduction
and substrate transport.

 Parabens also interfere directly enzymic activities.

Carcinogen Concern
Parabens may cancer , it is still controversial.
Sorbic Acid
• Sorbic acid and other sorbates are effective against yeasts and molds.

• Sorbate inhibit yeast growth in a variety of foods including wine, fruit juice,
dried fruit, cottage cheese, meat, and fish products.

• Sorbates are most effective in products of low pH including salad dressings,

tomato products, carbonated beverages, and a variety of other foods.

 The membrane is an important target for sorbic acid.

 Sorbic acid inhibits a number of key enzymes of intermediary metabolism,

such as enolase, lactate dehydrogenase and several Krebs cycle enzymes.

 Sorbic acid inhibits the germination and outgrowth of C. botulinum spores.

 Nitrite and Food Preservation
Nitrite inhibits bacterial growth in food.

Nitrite (200mg/ Kg) at pH 6.0 inhibits Escherichia,

Flavobacterium, Micrococcus, Pseudomonas and others.

 But Salmonella and Lactobacillus species were more

resistant to nitrite.

Nitrite inhibits spore forming bacteria such as Clostridium

botulinum (which is heat resistant).
 How does nitrite inhibit bacterial growth?
Nitrite addition to food reduces water activity.

 Bacterial inhibition by nitrite increases with decreasing pH,

 In the case of spores, nitrite inhibits the germination and
outgrowth of spores.

 Nitrite reacts with iron and sulfhydryl groups of key cell

constituents which, in turn, inhibit several biochemical
mechanism involved bacterial growth.
 Nitrite and Health Problem
Environmental protection agency (EPA ) regulates nitrite in
drinking water to protect public health.

 Infants below six months who drink water containing nitrite in

excess of the maximum contaminant level (MCL) could
become seriously ill and, if untreated, may die.

 Nitrosamines, formed by the reaction of nitrite with

secondary amines, especially at low pH, can be
carcinogenic.

 Addition of ascorbic acids to cured meat inhibits

nitrosamine formation.
 Sulfur Dioxide and Food preservation

Sulfur dioxide is a colorless gas that readily dissolves in

water.
Sulfur dioxide is active against bacteria, yeasts and moulds,
although some yeasts and moulds are more resistant.

 Gram-negative bacteria are most susceptible.

SO2 inhibits the growth of yeast in wine.

 Seasonal soft fruits are also preserved by the addition of high

levels of SO2 to permit jam production throughout the year.
 How does SO2 inhibit microbial growth?

The unionized forms of SO2 which can readily penetrate the

cell have the greatest antimicrobial activity.

 The unionized forms predominate at low pH values, it follows

that SO2 is used to best effect in acidic foods.

 SO2 can disrupt microbial metabolism.

it can break disulfide linkages in proteins

 Natamycin and Food Preservation
Natamycin is antibiotic produced by the bacterium
Streptomyces natalensis.

 It is a very effective antifungal agent as it binds

irreversibly to the fungal sterol, ergosterol, disrupting
the fungal cell membrane.

 Natamycin is used for the surface treatment of cheeses

and sausages to control yeast and mould growth.
Radiation
Radiation may be defined as the emission and
propagation of energy through space or through a material
medium.

The various radiations are separated on the basis of

their wavelengths, with the shorter wavelengths
being the most damaging to microorganisms.
Characteristics of Radiation

Electromagnetic Spectrum
Characteristics of Radiation
The electromagnetic spectrum may be further divided as
follows with respect to these radiations of interest in food
preservation: Microwaves, ultraviolet rays, X-rays, and
gamma rays.

The spectrum has two major divisions:

non-ionizing radiation
ionizing radiation
The ionizing quanta contain enough energy to
ionize molecules in their paths. Because they
destroy microorganisms without appreciably
raising temperature ,the process is termed cold
sterilization.
Food irradiation is the process of treating food with a specific
dosage of ionizing radiation.

The major effect of irradiation is to generate short-lived and

transient radicals (e.g. the hydroxy radical, the hydrogen atom
and solvated electrons) that in turn damage DNA and
intercellular structures.

The target organism ceases all processes related to maturation

or reproduction. At high enough doses the target organism does
not survive.
 Characteristics of UV radiation

UV radiation
 wavelengths 400nm to 10 nm
 Frequency (30X 109 -750X 109 MHz)
 quantum energy (10-12 ergs or 3-5 eV)
 Most effective wavelength is 260nm
 a strong absorption by nucleic acid bases

 The UV radiation used in food processing is a non-

ionizing radiation (since wavelength is 260nm)
 Ionizing radiation wavelength should be 200nm
or less.
The poor penetrative capacities of UV light limit its
food use to surface applications.

UV light is sometimes used to treat the surfaces of

baked fruitcakes and related products before
wrapping.

UV radiation at 200nm or below are absorbed

by oxygen in the air resulting in the production
of ozone which is extremely harmful to health.
Ultraviolet Radiation Cause
Thymine Dimers
Disrupts synthesis;
260 nanometer good for sterilization
wavelength of bacteria, bad for skin
cancer.
 Resistance of micro-organisms to UV
Gram-negatives<Gram-positives yeasts<bacterial
spores <mould spores<viruses

The resistance of micro-

organisms to UV is mainly
determined by their ability to
repair or remove of thymine
dimer in DNA sequences.

Resistance of Salmonella to UV is lesser than that of Clostridium- true or false

 Advantages and disadvantages of use of UV radiation.

 UV radiation can effectively disinfect the surface area of

foods

 But UV cannot penetrate more to inner portion of foods.

 UV increases oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids, which in

turn accelerates the development of rancidity of fats
resulting spoilage of foods.

 UV wavelengths used can cause burning of the skin and eye

disorders.
 Characteristics of Gamma radiation
γ radiation
 wavelength is less than 0.02nm
 high Frequency is more than 1018 Hz)
 High quantum energy (~1.1 MeV)
 Sources of γ radiation

 γ rays are produced by the decay of radioactive isotopes.

 The most commonly used isotope cobalt 60,

 Y rays can penetrate food up to a depth of 20 cm .

 An isotope of caesium, 137Cs, is also used to generate y rays.

 Principle : Action of Gamma Radiation to Microorganisms
• Ionizing radiation (Y radiation) can affect micro-organisms directly by
interacting with key molecules within the microbial cells.

 Y radiation can generate a large amount of free radicals by the

radiolysis of water. These free radicals can kill microorganisms.

Y radiation
Principle : Action of Gamma Radiation to Microorganisms
• .

Y radiation directly or indirectly causes either point

mutations or breaks in phosphodiester bonds of DNA
backbone of single strand or double strand.
 Characteristics of Microwaves
 Microwave region of the e.m. spectrum:
 Low frequency
(109-1012 Hz ~ 103-106
MHz)

 Relatively low quantum energy.

(10-18 ergs or 10-6 eV)
 Frequencies used in food processing,
2450MHz and 915 MHz
 Domestic microwave ovens use
 It is a non-ionizing radiation (wavelength [1mm-100 meter])
2450MHz

 Microwaves indirectly kill or inactivate micro-organisms through

the generation of heat.
  Microwaves are generated using a magnetron.
 this is used for both commercially and domestically

Magnetron is a high-powered vacuum tube that generates microwaves

using the interaction of a stream of electrons with a magnetic field.

Disadvantages:

 non-uniform heating of foods.

 Industrial applications of Microwave
in food processing

 to defrost frozen blocks of meat prior to their processing into products such as
burgers, pies etc.

 blanching of fruits and vegetables

 to pasteurize high-acid foods, such as fruits in syrup

PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING THE Destruction OF MICROORGANISMS BY
IRRADIATION

Several factors should be considered when the effects of radiation on

microorganisms are considered:

• Types of Organisms:
Gram-positive bacteria are more resistant to irradiation than
gram negatives.
In general, spore formers are more resistant than non-spore
formers

• Numbers of Organisms:
The larger the number of cells, the less effective is a given
dose.
 Composition of food`

Microorganisms in general are more sensitive to radiation when

suspended in buffer solutions. than in protein-containing media.

For example,
It is found that radiation values for a strain of Clostridium
perfringens to be 0.23 kGy in phosphate buffer, whereas in
cooked-meat broth, the D(Radiation) value was 3 kGy.

Proteins exert a protective effect against radiations, as well as

against certain antimicrobial chemicals and heat.
Presence or Absence of Oxygen

The radiation resistance of microorganisms is greater

in the absence of oxygen than in its presence.

.
Physical State of Food
• The radiation resistance of dried cells is, in general,
considerably higher than that for moist cells.

• Radiation resistance of frozen cells has been reported

to be greater than that of non-frozen cells.
Age of Organisms
• Bacteria tend to be most resistant to radiation in
the lag phase just prior to active cell division.

• The cells become more radiation sensitive as they

enter and progress through the log phase and
reach their minimum at the end of this phase.
PROCESSING OF FOODS FOR
IRRADIATION

• Prior to being exposed to ionizing radiations, several

processing steps must be carried out in much the same
manner as for the freezing or canning of foods.

• Selection of Foods:
Foods to be irradiated should be carefully selected for
freshness and overall desirable quality. Especially to be
avoided are foods that are already in incipient spoilage.
Cleaning of Foods
• All visible debris and dirt should be removed. This will
reduce the numbers of microorganisms to be destroyed
by the radiation treatment.
Packing
• Foods to be irradiated should be packed in containers that
will afford protection against postirradiation
contamination.
• Clear glass containers undergo color changes when
exposed to doses of radiation of around 10 kGy, and the
subsequent color may be undesirable.
Blanching or Heat Treatment

• Sterilizing doses of radiation are insufficient to destroy

the natural enzymes of foods.

• In order to avoid undesirable postirradiation changes, it

is necessary to destroy these enzymes.

• The best method is a heat treatment— that is, the

blanching of vegetables and mild heat treatment of meats
prior to irradiation.
LEGAL STATUS OF FOOD
IRRADIATION
• At least 36 countries had approved the irradiation
of some foods as of mid-1989.45 At least 20
different food packaging materials have been
approved by the U.S. Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) at levels of 10 or 60 kGy.

• In 1983, the FDA permitted spices and vegetable

seasonings to be irradiated up to 10 kGy (U.S.
Federal Register, July 15, 1983).
• The FDA granted permission in 1985 for the
irradiation of pork at upto 1 kGy to control
Trichinella spiralis (U.S. Fed eral Register, July
22,1985).

• In 1981, a joint Food and Agriculture

Organization(FAO)/International Atomic Energ
Agency (IAEA)/WHO Expert Committee on food
irradiation found that foods given an overall
average of up to 10.0 kGy were unconditionally
safe.
 Food preservation by ionizing radiations can
be classified into three categories
The dose of radiation used on food products is divided into three levels:

Radurization is a process comparable with thermal

pasteurization. The goal of radurization is to reduce the number
of spoilage microorganisms, using doses generally below 10
kGy. It is used to increase food shelf-life.

Radicidation is a process in which the irradiation dose is

enough to reduce specific non-spore-forming microbial
pathogens. Doses generally range from 2.5 to 10 kGy (Kilo
grays).

Radappertization is a process designed to inactivate spore-

forming pathogenic bacteria, similar to thermal sterilization.
Irradiation doses must be between 10 and 50 kGy.
Changes in food Quality:
• In meat-increase in pH, increase in
carbonyl compounds, H2S

• In fats - destruction of natural

antioxidants, oxidation of fats

• Loss of vitamins such as thiamine, C

and B6