Unit 5

Israel: The Jewish Republic in Asia

The State of Israel

The state of Israel, an independent republic in South-West Asia, is located between the eastern
shores of the Mediterranean Sea and the head of the Gulf of Aqaba, an arm of the Red Sea.
Israel was established on May 14, 1948, as a Jewish state on land that had been part of the British
mandate for Palestine. Historically, the area is considered the Holy Land for Christians, Jews, and Muslims.
 LAND

Israeli’s land extends for 420 km (260 mi) from the northern border with Lebanon and
Syria in the Golan Heights to Elat (Eliat), the country’s port on the Gulf of Aqaba in the
south. The territory it controls extends inland from the Mediterranean for 100 km.
 The southern half of Israel west of the Rift Valley, mostly desert is known as the Negev
– north of the Negev is a mountainous region.
 South and East of Phoenicia was Palestine, the Holy Land of the Hebrews. It was a
small country which stretched between the Mediterranean in the west and the Jordan
River and the Dead Sea in the east. It stood at the crossroads between the river valleys
of the Nile and the Tigris-Euphrates. Its climate was healthful. The plains were good
farmlands. The Hebrews did not always live in Palestine. It was to them the “Promised
Land” where after centuries of wandering they finally settled.
LAND

 The monotheistic religion of the Hebrews differs from that of the

Egyptians. The Hebrews believed in Jehovah, an unseen God who was
never identified with images or sacrifices. The worship of Jehovah was
tied with right behavior in compliance with the Ten Commandments.
 The first rulers of the Hebrews were patriarchs. When they took
Palestine, they set up what we would call a Republic.
 The first king of Israel was Saul. Under him, there was never a strong
central government. Tribes fought among themselves. After a rule of 40
years, he was succeeded by David.
 . When David became the king of Judah, he united the people of Israel into a strong kingdom with
Jerusalem as the capital and religious center. He extended the boundary of his kingdom and raised his
people to a position they had enjoyed before. David greatness does not rest in his military exploit
alone. He is remembered as a gifted poet and harpist. Many of his poems are in the Book of Psalms
and the Old Testament.
The Hebrews were invaded and overcome by many people.
i. Assyrians
ii. Persians
iii. Macedonians
iv. Romans
v. Byzantines
 Inspired by religion the Hebrews upon their return from exile to the Promise Land, copied
the ancient writings of their patriarchs and added the teachings of their prophets. This
collection together with Psalm and hymns became the sacred scriptures of the Jews. It
forms the first part of the Christian Bible, the Old Testament.
 Bible – a collection of 39 books which are chiefly dedicated to the ancient history of the
Jews to their laws and social aspiration
 Talmud – a collection of numerous treatises which are chiefly dedicated to the laws and
legend of the Jews. Talmud has its own form: precise terminology strict logic it is
predominantly prosaic
 The Bible and the Talmud are both Teachings of Law. The Bible is Written Torah, the
Talmud is Oral Torah. In a wider sense the Talmud extensive commentary in the Bible.
Even if the Talmud has finally committed to writing, it retained its discoursive
characteristic.
Hebrew Bible, also called Hebrew Scriptures, Old Testament, or Tanakh, collection of
writings that was first compiled and preserved as the sacred books of the Jewish people. It
also constitutes a large portion of the Christian Bible, known as the Old Testament.
Except for a few passages in Aramaic, appearing mainly in the apocalyptic Book of
Daniel, these scriptures were written originally in Hebrew during the period from 1200 to
100 BCE. The Hebrew Bible probably reached its current form about the 2nd century CE.
Historical development

I. The Biblical period.

 Ancient Hebrew historiography is not the documentary and scientific

historiography of modern times. It is a union of legend and fact, imagination and
speculation. The greater part of the Bible is history. This historical narrative is
interrupted by the legal narrative. The style is terse. It is written in rhythmic prose.
Prophecy, on the other hand, is written in the parallelistic form of poetry.
II. The Post Biblical Period

 The immediate post-biblical period is merely an extension of the

biblical period. Many apocryphal and apocalyptic books were patterned
after the biblical prototype. These books belong to a literature of
epigones. Itss newness consisted in radical departure from pagan
philosophy. Its belief was centered in the superiority of reason contained
in the scripture.
 The Greek translation of the Bible, the so-called Septuagint, is the
cornerstone of Hellenistic Literature of the Jews. The Septuagint may be
regarded as a work apologestics, perhaps the first and noblest work of
Jewish apologestics and symbolic of the spirit of the Jewish nation.
The most popular Hebrew Literature in the first centuries of the Christian era
was the:

 “Halakah”, a word which from the Hebrew “halak” meaning “go” or a rule to go
by. This grew in the various Jewish centers of learning. In these academics, masses
or oral tradition, customs, folklore, and interpretation of old laws were ordered,
discussed, and systematized. These were finally collected into Palestinian and
Babylonian Talmud. The Babylonian Talmud was of unwieldy an encyclopedia
dimensions.
 Another Hebrew branch of literature is the Haggadah coming from the Hebrew
“higgid” meaning to tell. The work can only be explained but not translated in as
much as it embraces folklore, theology, ethics, history, poetry, science, and extra
nonlegal material. It uses biblical verse as a point of departure. It is essentially
investigative. Its didacticism is subtle.
III. The Middle Ages.

When Islam became widespread in almost all parts of the world, the Hebrews
were forced to follow the Arabs in science and literature. "They patterned their own
intellectual movements after Arab models." They insisted on a literal interpretation of
the Koran. The Jews renewed their poetic output. In the latter part of the period,
Western countries were undergoing cultural changes which affected the Jews. Again
they had to adapt themselves to Western cultures.
Rhyme and meter were introduced
European forms like sonnet were introduced into Hebrew poetry.
Arabic influences permeated the themes of poetry.(wine, nature, sensual love,
friendship)
 Almost all of the writers of the enlightenment period modeled their styles on
the Bible. Some of these writers were:
 N.R. WESLEY- the creator of the epic poem, the Mosiad.
 SHALOM COHEM the creator of the Davidiad, an epic work on King David.
 J.M. GORDON, the most powerful poet of the period. Epic, lyric, and dramatic
poetry had biblical themes.

 The entire literature of the period was dominated by the ideological outlook of
ABAD HAAM. He maintained that the mosaic law has one purpose only, that is,
the welfare of the nation in a land of its own. With the loss of political
independence, there was a disintegration of national feeling.
 After the First World War, a major center of literature was created in Palestine and a
minor center in the United States. The Scholar of the Hebrew literature bore traces
of romanticism. Lyric poetry reached its maturity in the works of SLIKINE,
GINZBURG, BAVLI, BALKAN, BOGUIZON, EFROS, LISITZKY, and
PERIL.
Jewish Literature

The greatest literature the Israelites produced is embodied in the Bible, which is
composed of two books, the Old Testament and the New Testament. The whole Bible is a
compilation of many literary forms extending over many centuries but unified by the truth of
their divine inspiration.
 Love of God – an outstanding quality of the literature of Israel. It differs from the
literature of other ancient nations in that it believes in one God.
 Their literature is generally emotional often passionate. They wrote about the life of
Jews – the character of the people, the daily lives, the beautiful scenery of their land.
 Their literature also shows great love of country of their two great poets:
a) King David – greatest ruler
b) Moses – greatest legislator
 The Israelites developed all literary types:
a) Lyric
 BIBLE

 The most widely read book in the world, the Bible has been translated into more
languages and dialects than any other. It is really a collection of sixty-six (seventy-two
for the Catholics) books, ranging in date (in their present form) from c. 750 B.C. to c.
A.D. 100. It is divided into three parts: The Old Testament, The New Testament, and
The Apocrypha.
 BIBLE
I. THE OLD TESTAMENT.
 The Old Testament is made up of thirty-nine books, which may be classified
conveniently in six groups: History, Prophetic Books, Lyric Poetry, Drama, Wisdom
Literature, and Tales.

 History
 These books trace the history of the Hebrews from the creation of the world down
through the rebuilding of Jerusalem after the return from the Babylonian exile. Six of
the history books (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, and Joshua)
form a group known as the Hexateuch. The first five of the six (called the Pentatech)
were for a long time erroneously attributed to Moses .
 In its present from the Hexateuch dates c. 350 BC. parts of it were written perhaps as
early as 950 B.C. It is based on four principal sources, the so-called J.E, P and D
Documents.

i. Genesis. Chapters 1-11 contain accounts of the creation the world and man (1-2), the
fall of Adam and Eve (3), Cain's murder of Abel (4), Noah's flood (5-10), and the
Tower of of Babel (11). The remaining chapters deal with four cycles of legends,
revolving, respectively, around the central figures of Abraham (12-23), Isaac (24-26),
Jacob (26-36), and Joseph (37-50). Other famous passages relate these stories how
Lot's wife is turned into salt (19), Abraham's sacrifice of Isaac (22), Jacob's marriages
to Leah and Rachel (29), 's ladder (28), the sale of Joseph into Egypt (37), Joseph's
Jacob's temptation by Potiphar's wife (39), Pharaoh's dreams (41), and Jacob's moving
to Egypt (45
ii. Exodus. This book deals with the Hebrews' escape from Egypt and their journey back to
Palestine under the able lead- ership of Moses. Some famous sections tell of the
discovery of Moses in the bulrushes (2), the plagues of Egypt (7-11), the origin of the
Passover (12), Moses' Song (15), the send- ing of manna (16), and the Ten
Commandments (20). Most of the last half of the book is devoted to laws and their inter-
pretations, rites, and ceremonies.
iii. Leviticus. This document embodies a legal and religious system of laws, codes, rites,
and sacrifices. One section ("Ho- liness Code," chapters 17-26) is of Exilic origin; it
emphasizes righteousness and goodness of motive as opposed to ritualistic details.
iv. Numbers. Numbers contain an unreliable census, more religious laws and customs,
and some narratives concern- ing Moses. Its most famous episodes are Moses'
smiting of the rock (20) and the speech by Balaam's ass (22).
v. Deuteronomy. Based on a "Book of Law" found in the Temple at Jerusalem in 621B.C.,
it repeats much of Leviti- cus, but it contains some original narrative material concern-
ing the wandering of the Hebrews in the wilderness, and it tells of the death of Moses
(34).
vi. Joshua. A historical book dealing with Joshua's assuming leadership of the Hebrews after
the death of Moses. It tells of the entry into Canaan and of battles against hostile tribes; it
is a deliberate attempt to create a national military hero. Its most famous passages
describe the fall of the walls of Jericho (6) and the standing still of the sun and the moon
(10).
vii. Judges (earliest form, c. 850 B.C.; present form, c. 550 B.C.). This is a saga of the
Hebrews soon after the death of Joshua. It recounts the life and the battles of the Jews
under the Judges. Its famous passages are: the exploits and song of Deborah (4-5),
possibly written 1100 B.C.; Gideon's battles (6-8); the story of Abimelech (9); the story
of Jephthah's daughter (11); and the story of Samson (13-16).
viii. I Samuel (c. 550 B.C.). A continuation of Hebrew history under the judges and under
Saul, the first king. Its famous passages include: the call of Samuel (3), the choosing and
anointing of Saul (9-10), David's battle with Goliath (17), the friendship of David and
Jonathan (18-19), and Saul's at- tempts on David's life (20-27).
ix. II Samuel (c. 550 B.C.). This book is concerned princi-pally with the reign of David. Its
most famous episodes de pict David's marriage to Bathsheba (11-12) and Absalom's
rebellion (13-18).
x. I Kings (c. 550 B.C.). A history written for the purpose of proving that God rewarded His
worshipers and punished his enemies, it covers the period from the death of David to the
accession of Ahaziah of Israel. Its most famous passages relate the building division of the
Kingdom (12), and the prophecies and miracles of Elijah (17-22).
xi. II Kings (c. 550 B.C.). Written for the same purpose as 1 Kings. It continues the history
through the fall of the king- doms of Israel (721 B.C.) and of Judah (586 B.C.). Its
famous passages describe the miracles of Elisha (1-8), the fall of Is- rael (17),
Sennacherib's raid (18-19), the reforms of Josiah (22-23), and the fall of Judah (25).
xii. Nehemiah (c. 300 B.C.). This is a personal memoir by the political leader of the Hebrews
on their return from exile in It tells of the rebuilding of the walls of Jerusalem, d of the
religious reforms effected by Nehemiah.
  Prophetic Books
The Old Testament prophet was not primarily a soothsayer; rather, he was a religious and
social reformer. He was a spokesman for God, a spokesman who pointed out the people's
evils to them and who often threatened the nation with disaster and destruction unless it
repeated. Elijah and Elisha wrote nothing, but are considered the first two prophets.
The most important books of prophecy are summarized below. Others are Zephaniah, Nahum,
Obadiah, Zechariah, Joel, and Malachi.
i. Amos (c. 765-750 B.C., the oldest complete book in the Bible). Amos voices a stern
and uncomprising warning to the Kingdom of Israel-a warning of utter annihilation un-
less social reforms are immediately effected. Amos is often considered the first to
emphasize the justness of God.
 Hosea (c. 740 B.C.). This book of prophecy contains a far milder message than that of
Amos. Hosea stresses God's mercy and forgiveness rather than His justice, and he en-
treats instead of denouncing. He emphasizes God's love and willingness to forgive.
iii. Micah (c. 720 B.C.). Here are combined the attitudes of Amos and Hosea: Micah foretells not only the punishment
of the wicked but also an era of redemption and prosperity. He is probably the first author to express the hope for
uni- versal peace.
iv. Isaiah (c. 740-701 B.C.), thirty-nine chapters. Generally recognized as the greatest of the prophets, Isaiah was a
states- man as well as a religious leader. He advocated collabora tion with Assyria. Tradition holds that he was
executed by being sawed in half during the reign of the wicked King Manasseh of Judah. Isaiah had no illusions
about the com- plete moral regeneration of the people, but placed his hope in a "saving remnant," from whom
eventually would spring a Messiah; this leader would be strong enough to establish righteousness in the land.
v. Habakkuk (c. 600 B.C.). This book contains perhaps the earliest Hebrew discussion of the problem of evil.
Foresee-ing that the tyranny of Babylon would succeed that of Assyria, Habakkuk wonders whether the wicked will
really be punished and the righteous rewarded, but he soon an- swers confidently in the affirmative-though the
course of justice may be long. Not vehement but sincere, he attacks social and religious evils.
vi. Jeremiah (c. 600-586 B.C.). A book of gloomy prophecy. Jeremiah opposed rebellion against Babylon and was
later carried off as a prisoner by refugees who fled to Egypt when Jerusalem fell in 586 B.C. He held no hope for
the survival of his nation, but placed his only reliance on personal right-Lyric Poeteousness.

vii. Lamentations (c. 586 B.C.). Erroneously attributed to Jer- emiah, prophetic only in spirit, this poem bemoans the
fall of Jerusalem. It is extremely artificial in form; in the original Hebrew it is "an acrostic, each line beginning
with a differ- ent letter of the alphabet, and the lines are arranged in regular triplets or couplets, the whole carefully
divided to form a series of dirges within a dirge."

viii. Ezekiel (c. 585 B.C.). Written in Babylon by an exiled priest. This document helped maintain Hebrew morale by
emphasizing the importance of ritualistic practices. Paradoxi- cally, however, the author rejects the doctrines of
vicarious righteousness and of the visitation upon the sons of the sins of the fathers; instead he stresses personal,
individual responsibility. He is visionary and mystic. The book had great influence on Daniel, Dante, Milton,
Blake, and others.
viii. The Unknown Prophet (Chapters 40-66 of the book of Isaiah as it appears in the King James translation; c. 540
B.C.). Of Exilic authorship, this book is exuberant and rapturous. Its author suggests a new interpretation of Jewish
history: the sufferings of the people are not divine punishment for sins, but vicarious sufferings for the instruction
and redemp- tion of mankind. He suggests a Messiah of peace-the per- sonification of the Hebrews- who will
through his sufferings atone for all human beings. Bates calls the author "the first Christian, five centuries before
Christ." He has the concept of a universal God and stresses God's holiness. He also gives a picture of a new Golden
Age.
  Lyric Poetry

 Ancient Hebrew poetry employs some of the same poetic devices found in Germanic verse-parallelism of structure
and idea, repetition, and balance. There is no rhyme and no regular meter, but usually there is a distinct rhythm.

 Bits of lyric poetry are, of course, to be found scattered through many of the prose books, e.g., the Song of Deborah,
in Judges; and some of the prophetic books are almost entirely poetic. The great collection of lyrics, however, is the
Book of Psalms.

 The Psalms. An anthology of 150 hymns, compiled c. 150 B.C. A few of the hymns were probably written by
David (c. 1000 B.C.); some were written during the periods of the Kingdom and of the Exile; most were post-Exilic.
These psalms vary widely in tone, content, and style. Some are personal (e.g., 23, 121), others antiphonal and
liturgical (e.g., 24); some are vindictive and violent (e.g., 137), others lofty and noble (e.g., 19, 42). It is doubtful
that any other comparable anthology has ever equalled the Psalms in sincerity, fervor, and passion.
  Drama

Although there was no theater in Palestine, there are two examples of dramatic writing. Job (c. 350 B.C.),
i. The book of Job is a philosophical drama, principally in poetic form, it was probably influenced by Greek tragedy-
in content as well as in form. It was not intended to be acted. Its theme is the problem of evil. Satan persuades God
to let him try Job, a righteous and prosperous man, by afflicting him with boils, the death of his children, and the
loss of his wealth. His three friends, Zophar Eliphaz, and Bildad (ironically known as "Job's comforters"). suggest
God is testing Job's love and loyalty. Job protests that he is innocent; he is steadfast in his love for God, but he
questions God's motives in making the innocent suffer the real philosophic conclusion is presented by the voice out
of the Whirlwind (38-41); the question of why the innocent suffers is unanswerable by man, and man is
presumptuous to question the motives of God. Job is humbled. Two passages have been interpolated into the
original drama. The first (32- 37) is made up of the speeches of Elihu, a fourth "comforter"; these tedious speeches
add little to the philosophical discussion and break the dramatic action. The other interpolation (42) is contradictory
to the conclusion found in Chapters 38-41: Job's health and possessions are restored.
ii. The Song of Songs or Song of Solomon (c. 350 B.C.). A semi dramatic poem intended to be presented with songs
and dances as part of a wedding ceremony. Beautiful, sensuous, and sometimes highly erotic, the poems
comprising this book are supposed to be spoken by the groom (in the role of King Solomon), the bride (the
Shulamite), and choruses. Few scholars today accept the old beliefs that the book is an alle- gory of Christ's love
for the Church, that Solomon was its author, and that the love described is spiritual.
  Wisdom Literature

i. Proverbs (compiled c. 300 B.C.). A book of prudential sayings, chiefly poetic; erroneously ascribed to Solomon,
Probably of popular origin. Some of them are on a morally igh plane, but many others are selfishly practical
Perhaps the whole book "smacks too much of the Ben Franklin ethics it pays to be honest."

ii. Ecclesiastes (c. 150 B.C.). Wrongly ascribed to Solomon, this is a series of heretical essays of profound
pessimism, fatalism, and skepticism (except for many proverbs and pi- ous passages interpolated by later editors).
The tone is that of a disillusioned old man who has found existence to be futile and meaningless. "All is vanity.“
  Tales

Several stories (once considered true, now generally recognized as fictional) are included in the Old Testament. Each
one has a special purpose or message.

i. Ruth (c. 350 B.C.). A short story containing a tactful protest against the forbidding of racial intermarriage. Ruth, a
Moabitess, is revealed as the ancestor of David, the greatest king of the Hebrews. It is famous for Ruth's
declaration of love for her mother-in-law: "Intreat me not to leave thee."

ii. Jonah (c. 275 B.C.). A widely misunderstood tale about an early Jewish missionary who rebels when sent to
Nineveh, who repents and carries out his mission, but who rebels a second time when God forgives Nineveh. Often
the religious and ethical lessons the wickedness of the rebelliousness and selfishness of Jonah, the universality and
mercifulness of God, the virtue of repentance, and the need for religious and racial tolerance-are disregarded in
favor of an inconsequential argument over whether a man could exist for three days in a whale's belly.
iii. Daniel (c. 150 B.C.). An allegorical tale written for the purpose of encouraging the Jews during the
Maccabean struggle. The story is based partially on old legends about an Exilic prophet. It has an
apocalyptic ending. Its most fa- mous passages depict Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego in the fiery
furnace (3); Belshazzar's feast (5) and Daniel in the lion's den (6).

iv. Esther (c. 150 B.C.). Probably the latest of all the Old Testament books and also the least moral. Its
purpose was the supplying of a historical basis for the Jewish Feast of Purim. The tale is bloodthirsty
and revengeful, but artistic and effectively written. Esther, queen of King Ahasuerus (Xerxes), saves her
uncle, Mordecai, as well as the other Jew. ish people by exposing the plot of the wicked Haman, who
has sought to destroy the Jews.
II. THE NEW TESTAMENT
. The New Testament is an account of the origin and early development of Christianity. It is made up of
four biographies of Jesus (the Gospels), a Church history, twenty-one epistles concerning religious matters,
and an apocalypse-twenty seven books in all. Most (or perhaps all) of these were written originally in
Greek; perhaps the Gospels appeared first in Aramaic. All the books were composed in the period A.D. 40-
125.
 The Gospel
There are four accounts of the life of Christ. They agree in most essentials but differ in minor details.
i. Matthew (Greek version, c. A.D. 80; perhaps Aramaic version, c. A.D.55). Attributed to the Apostle
Matthew; based to a large extent on the Gospel according to Mark. Addressed to the Hebrews, the book
has two main purposes: (1) to prove to the Jews that Christ was a fulfillment of the old prophe- cies-that
He was the Messiah; and (2) to record the ethical teaching of Jesus. It begins with a genealogy of
Joseph, hus- band of the mother of Jesus, and it gives the birth, life, crucifixion, resurrection, and
ascension of Christ. It contains the only account of the Wise Men and of the flight of Joseph, Mary, and
Jesus to Egypt. This Gospel is more carefully and purposefully written than that by Mark.
ii. Mark. Greek version, c. A.D. 70-100; perhaps in lost Ara- maic version, c. A.D. 40-70). It is the
earliest, shortest, and perhaps most authentic of the Gospels. Mark is a source book for Matthew and
Luke; the three are called the "Synoptic Gospels." The book of Mark is attributed to John Mark,
companion of the Apostle Peter in Rome. It tells of only the last three years of the life of Christ-his
ministry, death, and resurrection, The author of this fast-moving narrative delights in for its own sake
and in the miracles. He is care- workmanship and is guilty of confusing repetitions. the story The last
portion of the book (16:9-20) is generally considered an interpolation by a later editor.

iii. Luke. Greek version, c. A.D. 90; perhaps Aramaic version- A.D. 65), written by Luke, a physician and
the companion of Paul on some missionary journeys. Luke uses Mark and Matthew as sources, but
draws on other material as well. The book was written for the Greeks and Romans. Its author stresses
the humanity of Jesus. Luke delights in poetry; he alone preserves the songs of Mary (the Magnificat,
1:46- 55) and a Simeon (the Nunc Dimittis, 2:29-32). The tone of this Gospel is gentle, tolerant, and
humanitarian. Luke gives the entire life of Jesus and the most famous account of His birth (2:1-20).
iv. John. (c. A.D. 100-125 in its present form). Attributed, probably erroneously, to the Apostle John; the
extant form of the book is much too late for such authorship. The book shows the influence of Greek
and Alexandrian philosophy, especially the doctrine of the Logos. Its emphasis is on the divinity of
Christ, His personification of logos, faith (as op- posed to works), the identification of the love for God
with the love for man, and mystical union with the Deity. After a prologue, the book begins with John
the Baptist's baptizing of Jesus; then it tells of Jesus' ministry, death, and resurrection; it does not
mention the ascension.
  Church History

i. The Acts of the Apostles (c. A.D. 60-90). By Luke, the author of the third Gospel. The Acts is a vivid
and moving narrative of the spread of Christianity over Asia Minor, the islands of the Mediterranean,
Greece, and Rome. It tells of the Pentecost; the stoning of Stephen, the first Christian martyr; many
early miracles; the struggles of the Church; and the conversion and missionary journeys of Paul young.

ii. Epistles. By Paul (all written A.D. 50-65). Of the thirteen letters attributed to Paul, six are of major
significance. Al- though topical and addressed to specific congregations or specific individuals, these
letters have proved to be the most universal influential letters ever written as an account of later
Christian doctrine and practice. The tone and style of the epistles vary with the occasion and with the
emotion of the moment. Some are cool, clear, and rational; others are elo- quent, passionate, or even
rhapsodic. Many parts are very closely reasoned and make difficult reading.
iii. I and II Thessalonians. Written at Athens to the young Church at Thessalonica. In these letters Paul
expounds his beliefs that Christ's Second Coming is near and that there- fore all men should make haste
to be righteous and devout so that they may be able to rise with Christ and inherit eternal life.
iv. Galatians. Written at Rome; called by Goodspeed "a charter of religious freedom." Here Paul
energetically denounces the tendency of the Church at Galatia to emphasize Mosaic law and ritualism.
This epistle is expressive of Paul's liberalism and his concept of Christianity as a universal rather than a
local religion.
v. 1 Corinthians. Written at Philippi. Here Paul answers many questions which had been troubling the
Church at Corinth. He inveighs against personal pride and ambition, and he proclaims (13-the famous
"Love" chapter) the van- ity of all gifts and accomplishments not motivated by "Char- ity." He repeats
his conviction that Christ's Second Coming will soon take place, and he advocates, therefore, that peo-
ple remain unmarried so that they may devote more atten- tion to religious endeavors. Again (15) he
states his belief in Christ's resurrection and in personal immortality ("O death, where is thy sting? O
grave, where is thy victory?").
vi. II Corinthians. Written at Philippi; probably a combina- tion of two other letters, the earlier one
constituting the last four chapters. This book is memorable for the author's rather bitter defense of
himself (10-13)-a defense which seems to have been the result of the revolt of a faction of the
Corinthian Church against Paul's leadership. The defense was success- ful, and the first nine chapters of
the letter indicate that a reconciliation had been made.
vii. Romans. Written at Corinth. This epistle is the most thorough expression of Paul's doctrine of
salvation by faith- a supplement to his belief about sympathetic understand- ing found in 1
Corinthians. The Epistle to the Romans is the most profound and most theoretical of Paul's writings; it
represents the very center of his theology- "All roads lead to Romans."There are in the New Testament
eight epistles besides those of Paul. Only three are of major importance. (The oth- ers are I and II
Peter, II and III John, and Jude.)

viii. Hebrew. (c. A.D. 70-80). An anonymous sermon once erroneously attributed to Paul. This document
is in the Pauline tradition but is smoother, more flowing, and gentler than Paul's writing. Addressed to
the Christian Jews, it puts a great deal of stress on Paul's doctrine of justification by faith.

ix. James. (c. A.D. 40-90). Attributed to James, the brother of Jesus. This is an open letter or sermon
addressed to the "twelve tribes which are scattered abroad." It seems to be the deliberate result of the
author's reaction against by works;
"Be ye doers of the Word and not hearers only." James also makes an eloquent plea against social injustice.
viii. I John. (c. A.D. 100-125). By the author of the Gospel according to John. Addressed to "a pious
matron," this let- ter is an answer to the Gnostic heresies concerning the nature of Christ. John finds no
difficulty in recognizing in Christ the mystical unity of the human and the divine.

 The Apocalypse

• The Revelation to St. John The Divine (c. A.D. 90). This book was almost certainly written by some
unidentified Ephesian mystic instead of by the Apostle John, to whom it has been ascribed.

• Ethically inferior to the other books of the New Testament, the Revelation is, nevertheless, a literary
masterpiece. Its mystical symbolism, its graphic accounts of the battles between Good and Evil, and its
terrifying picture of the end of the world place it high in the realm of descriptive writing.
III. The Apochrypha

This is a collection of fourteen books which were included in the Septuagint (Greek) of
the Vulgate (Latin) versions of the Old Testament, but which were not considered by the
Palestinian Jews to have been genuinely inspired and which were not in the original
Hebrew. During the Reformation, these were excluded from the Sacred Canon by the
Protestants, but they were included in the King James version and placed between the
Old and New Testaments. The Church of England admitted them into the Canon for
purpose of "edification" rather than for "the establishment of doctrine." From a literary
point of view, it is regrettable that these books have been dropped from most Protestant
Bibles since about 1890.
 History
i. ESDRAS (c. 390 B.C.). An account of the Jew's return after the Babylonian
captivity. It is mainly a reworking of II Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah and
therefore has little original literary value.
ii. II ESDRAS. (c. 380 B.C.). This sequel is less historical than I Esdras, but more interesting
as a piece of literature. It consists chiefly of visions, angelic revelations, and prophe- cies of
the downfall of the wicked and of the salvation of the righteous.

iii. I AND II MACCABEES. c. 130 B.C.). These books give a history of the Jews in Palestine
during the middle of the second century B.C. Book II covers approximately the period 185-
168 B.C.- the years preceding the rebellion of the Jews against the Syrian King Antiochus
Epiphanes, who at- tempted to suppress the Jewish religion. Book I recounts the rebellion
itself, Judas Maccabaeus, and in the establishment of a dynasty of Hebrew priest-kings,
who ruled till 40 B.C.
  Tales
i. Judith (c. 150 B.C.). A fictitious story of a God-fearing Jewess, who, when
her native Bethulia is besieged by Nebuchadnezzar's men, makes her way (by
names of her beauty and her wisdom) into the tent of Holofernes, the leader
of the Assyrian expeditionary force. She pretends willingness to submit to his
desires, lulls him into a feeling of security, and succeeds in beheading him in
his drunken slumber. Judith is a favorite heroine of the Hebrews and has been
the subject of many poems and paintings.
ii. Susanna and the Elders. (c. 130 B.C.). An excellent little story about a
beautiful and righteous matron whom two wicked elders attempt to seduce.
Her obstinacy leads the elders to accuse her of infidelity. She is condemned
to death at first, but is later exonerated when Daniel proves by cross-
examination that the elders are perjuring themselves. The elders are put to
death. The story is told with admirable economy of words and with suspense.
 Tobit. (date uncertain, 350 B.C.-A.D. 75). A wildly ro- mantic tale which shows
both Egyptian and Persian influ- ences. Tobit, who has lost both his property and
his eyesight, sends his son Tobias to Medea to recover some silver which he (Tobit)
has formerly left there. The angel Raphael, dis- guised as a fellow countryman,
accompanies Tobias. By burn- ing various parts of a fish, they succeed in driving
away Asmodeus, a devil who has killed seven successive bride- grooms of Sara, a
cousin of Tobias. Tobias and Sara marry, receive half the property of Sara's father,
and return to fetch the silver from Medea, reveals his identity, and exhorts the other
principals of the story to worship God for his good- ness to them.
  Wisdom Literature

i. Ecclesiasticus or the Wisdom of Jesus, Son of Sirah. (c. 150 B.C.). This
is a group of poetic, pithy proverbs. Like the Book of Proverbs in the
Sacred Canon, its wisdom is shrewd rather than deep or noble; its burden is
that obedience to God will bring prosperity and happiness- a favorite Old
Testament sentiment. The book contains, however, some lofty and majestic
passages.

ii. The Wisdom of Solomon. (c. 50 B.C., written in Alexandra). another

collection of maxims and wise sayings. Its moral partially a result of Greek
influence, is on a higher level than that of either Proverbs of Ecclesiasticus,
and it actually tone, approaches the nobility found in Christian ethics