Endocrine System

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
David Audu
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
• The endocrine system is one of two major systems which control the body's
activities. The endocrine system is composed of glands which secrete
substances called hormones into the bloodstream.
• These hormones act as chemical messengers and float in the bloodstream to
the body's organs, the target of the particular hormone. At the target, the
hormone causes some action. The hormone either turns on a biochemical
reaction or turns off a biochemical reaction
The Endocrine System and the Nervous System.
• The endocrine system works with the nervous system to regulate and
integrate the processes of the body such as growth, development,
reproduction, response to stress, and change of food into energy and body
tissue.
• The two systems work together like a giant super system. Some parts of
the nervous system stimulate or prevent the release of hormones. Some
hormones can stimulate or prevent the flow of nerve impulses.
Composition and Activities of Hormones.
• Hormones are composed of proteins, amino acids, or steroids. Although
hormones affect many of the body's activities, hormone actions can be
categorized into four broad areas:
• (1) Internal environment control. Hormones help control the body's internal
environment by regulating the chemical composition and volume of the
body's fluids and tissues.
• (2) Environmental condition adjustments. Hormones help the body adjust to
changes in the environment. Thanks to various hormones, the body can cope
with emergency demands such as infection, trauma, emotional stress,
dehydration, starvation, hemorrhage, and temperature extremes.
• (3) Growth and development. Hormones are instrumental in regulating the
growth and development of the body.
• (4) Reproduction. Hormones are very important in the basic process of
reproduction. Various hormones play a significant part in fertilization,
nourishment of the embryo and fetus, delivery, and nourishment of the
newborn.
General location of major endocrine glands.
PINEAL GLAND
• The pineal gland is located just posterior to the third ventricle in the brain. The
name was chosen because this gland resembles a pine cone. The pineal gland
starts to calcify (becomes hard due to deposit of calcium salts) at about the
time of puberty. These calcium deposits are referred to as brain salts.
• Hormoes secreted by the pineal gland
(1) Melatonin. This hormone seems to be secreted on a day/night cycle with
the highest production at night and the lowest production during the day.
Its function is to prevent ovarian secretion.
(2) Serotonin. This hormone seems to prevent extremes in the blood vessels
of the brain. If blood vessels in the brain seem too small, serotonin dilates
the vessels (makes them wider). The levels of this hormone are highest at
noon and lowest at midnight.
(3) Glomerulotropin. This hormone stimulates the secretion of adrenal
aldosterone.
PITUITARY GLAND
• The pituitary gland is small weighing only about 600 mg; however, it is a key
organ. The pituitary gland influences every structure and system in the body.
• Structurally and functionally, the pituitary gland is divided into two lobes: the
anterior lobe and the posterior lobe.
Anterior Lobe--Hormones.
• (1) Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). This hormone is secreted by the
anterior lobe of the pituitary gland. ACTH stimulates the adrenal cortex to
produce steroid hormones. A primary action of ACTH is to promote and
maintain normal growth and development of the adrenal cortex.
• (2) Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). FSH stimulates the normal growth
cycle of the ovarian follicle in females. In males FSH stimulates the
seminiferous tubules (tubes that convey semen) to produce spermatozoa.
• (3) Growth hormone (GH). This hormone promotes fat mobilization, prevents
glucose from being used, and affects the rate of skeletal and visceral (internal
organs) growth. Too much of this hormone can cause diabetes. Also, an
excess of this hormone in early life can cause a child to become a giant. Too
little of this hormone in early life can cause an infant to become a dwarf.
Another name for GH is somatotropin.
• (4) Interstitial cell stimulating hormone (ICSH). ICSH stimulates testicular
interstitial cells in the male to produce androgen, a substance that stimulates
the development of male sex characteristics. This hormone in the male is the
same as the luteinizing hormone in the female which is essential for
ovulation (discharge of an ovum from the mature follicle of the ovary).
• (5) Luteinizing hormone (LH). LH promotes the maturation of the ovarian
follicle; secretion of progesterone; ovarian follicle to release the ovum; and
the conversion of the ruptured follicle into the corpus luteum (the scar
tissue which forms the ruptured follicle).
• (6) Pituitary growth hormone (PGH). PGH is a growth hormone. Also known
as the somatotropic hormone (STH), this hormone turns on body cells to
grow. The principal function is to increase the rate of growth of body cells
and to maintain their size once growth is attained. The growth hormone also
increases the rate of protein synthesis and promotes a process called fat
catabolism. Fat catabolism causes cells to switch from burning
carbohydrates to burning fats for energy.
Posterior Lobe--Hormones
• (1) Antidiuretic hormone (ADH). This hormone has a potent antidiuretic

action. ADH makes the collecting duct of the kidney permeable to water and
allows reabsorption of water and concentration of urine in the kidney.
• (2) Oxytocin. Oxytocin is formed in the base of the brain (hypothalamus) and
stored in the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland. This hormone stimulates
smooth muscle and causes strong contractions of the uterus and the ejection
of milk from the breast.
• NOTE: Oxytocin is not to be confused with the hormone prolactin which

stimulates the production of milk.
THYROID GLAND
• Description. The thyroid gland is located just below the larynx with a right
and left lateral lobe on either side of the trachea. A mass of tissue called an
isthmus lies in front of the trachea and connects the two lateral lobes of the
thyroid gland. The thyroid gland weighs about 25 grams and receives a rich
supply of blood (about 80 to 120 ml per minute).
• Hormones. Thyroid hormones have three principal effects on the body. They
regulate the body's metabolism rate; regulate the body's growth and
development; and regulate the activity of the nervous system. To fulfill these
functions, the thyroid gland releases these hormones; tetraiodothyronine
(thyroxine or T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). Both of these hormones contain
iodine. Iodine collects in the thyroid gland in the process of thyroid hormones
being made
PARATHYROID GLANDS
• The parathyroid glands are tiny bean-shaped glands embedded on either side
of the thyroid gland. There are usually four parathyroid glands, but there may
be more. The upper parathyroids are usually located at the point where the
upper and middle third of the thyroid gland meet. The lower parathyroids are
usually located in the branches of the inferior thyroid artery, but these
parathyroids may be located in the chest.
• Hormones. The parathyroid glands secrete the hormone parathormone. This
hormone regulates the concentration of calcium and phosphorus in the blood.
Parathormone also influences the passage of calcium and phosphorus among
the bloodstream, bones, and urine.
ADRENAL GLANDS
• The adrenal glands are located above the kidneys. The adrenal cortex is the
outer part of the gland, and the medulla is the inner portion of the gland.
• Glucocorticoids. The glucocorticoids secreted by the adrenal cortex aid
protein, fat, and carbohydrate metabolism to help the body meet stress
conditions. Glucocorticoids accelerate the breakdown of protein to amino
acid which is changed to glucose in the liver. In this way, the amount of
serum glucose in the body is increased. Glucocorticoids also help the body
withstand stress from anxiety or sever injury because the hormone has an
anti-inflammatory effect. Catecholamine hormones, a type of glucocorticoid
hormone, are commonly known as the "fight or flight" hormones because
these hormones give the body extra energy in stressful situations.
• Mineralocorticoids. Mineralocorticoids keep mineral salt metabolism
in balance which, in turn, helps to maintain the body's electrolyte and
fluid intracellulary balance. Aldosterone, a mineralocorticoid,
regulates the metabolism of sodium, chloride, and potassium.
Aldosterone causes sodium to be absorbed into the blood which leads
to water being reabsorbed in the farthest renal tubules. Proper levels
of aldosterone also cause potassium to be excreted and aids in the
maintenance of normal blood Ph.
PANCREAS
• Functions. The pancreas is a gland with two major functions, one an
endocrine function and the other an exocrine function. As an endocrine
organ, the pancreas produces the hormone insulin. As an exocrine organ, the
pancreas produces a variety of enzymes (protein-digesting enzymes, fat-
digesting enzymes, and carbohydrate-digesting enzymes).
• Composition. The pancreas, located slightly behind and toward the top of the
stomach, is composed of three parts: a head, body, and tail. The average
length is about six inches, and the average weight is about three ounces. The
endocrine portion of the pancreas is called the isles of Langerhans which are
clusters of cells. Three kinds of cells are found here: alpha cells, beta cells,
and delta cells.
• Hormones. Alpha cells secrete the hormone glucagon which acts
primarily on the liver. Alpha cells increase the body's blood sugar level
by causing sugar to be removed from storage in the liver and
transferred to the blood. Beta cells secrete insulin which affects most
body cells. Insulin causes a decrease in blood sugar by increasing the
ability for body cells to take up and use sugar. Beta cells promote
storage of sugars and fats on body tissue and promote building of
body protein. Delta cells secrete somatostatin, a hormone which
inhibits growth.
GONADS
• Description. The gonads are the sex glands. In the female, the gonads are
the ovaries which are located in the pelvic cavity. In the male, the gonads
are the testes which are located in the scrotum. These glands give the
primary sex characteristics in the growth and development of the primary
reproductive organs at puberty. These glands are also responsible for the
secondary sex characteristics.
• (1) Hormones in females. The ovaries, in the female, produce estrogen,

progesterone, and relaxin. Estrogen is responsible for stimulating the
development of the female sex organs and secondary sexual characteristics
of voice pitch, broad pelvis, and hair pattern. Progesterone acts with
estrogen to regulate menstruation. Relaxin causes the birth canal to widen.
• (2) Hormones in males. The testes, in the male, produce the hormone
testosterone. Testosterone is the principal male hormone and has a
number of effects on the body. First, this hormone controls the
development, growth, and maintenance of the male sex organs.
Additionally, the hormone stimulates bone growth, sexual behavior, final
maturation of sperm, and development of male secondary sex
characteristics.
• NOTE: Testosterone is also responsible for stimulating the descent of the
testes just before a male is born.

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ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

• (1) Antidiuretic hormone (ADH). This hormone has a potent antidiuretic

• NOTE: Oxytocin is not to be confused with the hormone prolactin which

• (1) Hormones in females. The ovaries, in the female, produce estrogen,

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