Lec-1 Intro To Thermodynamics

Applied Physics
Lec – 1: Introduction to Thermodynamics

Definition
• Thermodynamics is derived from two words: ‘Thermo’

which means ‘Heat energy’ and ‘Dynamics’ which means
‘conversion’ or ‘transformation’.
• Concisely, thermodynamics is a division of science that

deals with conversion of energy from one form to another.
• The main forms of energy of interest in engineering

thermodynamics are heat and work.
• Thermodynamics:
• Study of energy transfers
• Changes of state (solid, liquid, gas...)
Definition contd.
• Work is the form of energy useful in displacement of a

body.
Work  Force  Distance (Joules)

• Heat is the form of energy transferred due to temperature
gradient between two bodies.
Heat  Mass  Specific  Temperatur e difference (Joules)

Thermodynamic system
• A specified collection of matter is called a system, which is

defined by the mass and the composition.
Thermodynamic Systems - Definitions
Isolated System: No matter or energy cross system

boundaries. No work can be done on the system.
Example: A thermo flask containing hot or cold liquid.

• Closed System: Energy can be exchanged but matter cannot.
• Example: Earth is a closed system because all important

ingredients of water, gases, and chemical nutrients exist on
Earth in limited amounts, and recycle over and over again
• Open System: Free exchange across system boundaries.
• Example: An open tank of water

Thermodynamic State Properties
• Extensive: These variables or properties depend on the

amount/ quantity of material present (e.g. mass or volume).
• Intensive: These variables or properties DO NOT depend

on the amount of material (temperature).
Temperature
• Measure of hotness and coldness in terms of any arbitrary scales and
indicating the direction in which energy spontaneously flows (from a
hotter body to a colder one).
Contd.
Kelvin Scale: universally accepted scale
T (in C)  T (in K)  273.15

• To establish the size of degree on Kelvin scale, a specific
calibrating system is required.
• i.e. the Triple point of Water

Triple Point of Water
• The point at which ice, liquid water and water vapor coexist
in thermal equilibrium.
• Internationally,
Ttr = 273.15
Temperature Scales
Celsius: Water freezes at 0 C, boils at 100 C
Fahrenheit: Water freezes at 32 F, boils at 212 F
9
T (in F)  32  T (in C)
5
5
T (in C)  T (in F)  32 
9
Example 1:
• The average surface temperature of Saturn's largest moon

Titan is 93K. What is the Titan’s temperature in
i) Fahrenheit
ii) Centigrade
Example 2:
• The temperature on the Moon varies from - 230°C, at night,

to 120°C during the day. What is the range in temperature
on the Moon in degrees Fahrenheit?
Thermal Equilibrium
• Equilibrium:
the condition of a system in which all competing influences
are balanced.
• Thermal Equilibrium:
• Condition after two objects are in thermal contact and finish
exchanging heat.
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
• If two objects are in thermal

equilibrium with a third, then
they are in thermal equilibrium
with each other.
• Two objects are defined to have

the same temperature if they are
in thermal equilibrium with each
other.
Contd.
If A is in thermal equilibrium with B and B is in thermal

equilibrium with C, A is in thermal equilibrium with C.
• objects at thermal equilibrium have same T

• Heat moves from high T to low T objects
Example:
• Suppose some firewood is brought in from the cold and an apple pie
is removed from a hot oven. Both are placed in the same room. With
time the firewood and the room will reach thermal equilibrium, as
will the pie and the room. This means the firewood and the room are
at the same temp. The pie and room are at the same temp too.
Therefore, by the Zeroth law, the firewood and pie are at the same
temp, meaning they too are in thermal equilibrium.
Temperature
• Some important concepts:
• Constants: In science, a constant is a measurement, usually

in an experiment, that never changes.
• Example: An example of a constant would be "number of

hours in a day for a 31-day period in January."
Contd.
• Variable: A variable is something that changes. The change

may be due to the influence of another variable or by itself.
• Example: An example of a variable is "the number of hours

of daylight during a 31-day period " in January. It is not the
same every day and changes.
Thermal expansion of solids and liquids
When objects are heated up they typically expand. This is due to the
increased motion of molecules at elevated temperatures.
Change in Length:
L    Li  T
a … coefficient of linear expansion

Li … initial length
DL … change in length
DT …change in temperature (in centigrade or Kelvin)
Thermal expansion of solids and liquids
When objects are heated up they typically expand. This is due to the
increased motion of molecules at elevated temperatures.
Change in Volume:
V    Vi  T
b … coefficient of volume expansion

Vi … initial volume
DV … change in volume,
DT …change in temperature (in centigrade or Kelvin)
Ideal Gas Law
• The ideal gas law is the equation of state of a

hypothetical ideal gas.
The Ideal Gas Law
- Gas molecules don’t interact upon collision

- Molecular volume of gas molecules is negligible compared with
volume of container
P V  n  R  T
P … Pressure of gas
V … Volume of gas
n … number of moles of gas
R … Universal gas constant, R = 8.315 J/mol·K
T … absolute Temperature (in Kelvin)
Exercises (Pg. 491)
Sample Problem 21-2
• TABLE 21-3: Values of

Coefficients of Linear
Expansion
Substance o
• A steel metric scale is to be α (10 per C )
-6
ruled so that the millimeter Ice 51

intervals are accurate to within Lead 29
about 5x10-5 mm at a certain Aluminium 23
temperature. What is the Brass 19
maximum temperature variation Copper 17
allowable during the ruling? Steel 11
Glass (ordinary) 9
Glass (pyrex) 3.2
Invar alloy 0.7
Quartz 0.5
Sample Problem 21-3
• An insulated cylinder fitted with a piston contains oxygen at a

temperature of 20C and a pressure of 15 atm in a volume of 22 liters.
The piston is lowered decreasing the volume of the gas to 16 liters,
and simultaneously the temperature is raised to 25C. Assuming
oxygen to behave like an ideal gas under these conditions, what is the
final pressure of the gas?
Exercises
21-1: The boiling point and the melting point for water on the
Fahrenheit scale were chosen so the difference between the
two temperatures would be 180F. Devise a new
temperature scale S so absolute zero is 0S and
Tbp - Tmp = 180S.
a) What is the conversion formula from Celsius to S?
b) What are Tbp and Tmp in S?
21-2: Absolute zero is -273.15C. Find the absolute zero on
the Fahrenheit scale.
• 21-3: Repeat exercise 1, except choose the new temperature
scale Q so that absolute zero is 0Q and Tbp,water – Tmp,water =
100Q.
a) What is the conversion formula from Celsius to Q?
b) What are Tbp,water and Tmp,water in Q?

• 21-4:
a) The temperature of the surface of the sun is about 6000 K. Express
this on the Fahrenheit scale.
b) Express normal human body temperature, 98.6F on the Celsius
scale.
c) In US, the lowest officially recorded temperature is -70 F at Roger
Pass, Montana. Express this on the Celsius scale.
d) Express the boiling point of oxygen, -183C on the Fahrenheit.
e) At what Celsius temperature would you find a room to be
uncomfortably warm?
• 21-5: If your doctor tells you that your temperature is 310 K, should
you worry? Explain your answer.
• 21-6: At what temperature is the Fahrenheit scale reading equal to

a) Twice that of Celsius
b) Half that of Celsius
• 21-12: An aluminium flag pole is 33m high. By how much does its
length increase as the temperature increases by 15C?
• 21-14: A circular hole in an aluminium plate is 2.725 cm in diameter
at 12C. What is its diameter when the temperature of the plate is
raised to 140C.
• 21-15: A glass window is 200cm by 300 cm at 10C. By how much

has its area increased when its temperature is 40C? Assume that the
glass is free to expand.
• 21-22: The area A of a rectangular plate is ab. Its coefficient of linear
expansion is α. After a temperature rise ∆T, side a is longer by ∆a
and side b is longer by ∆b. Show that if we neglect the small quantity
∆a ∆b/ ab, then we get ∆A = 2αA ∆T.

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Applied Physics

Lec – 1: Introduction to Thermodynamics

• Thermodynamics is derived from two words: ‘Thermo’

• Concisely, thermodynamics is a division of science that

• The main forms of energy of interest in engineering

• Work is the form of energy useful in displacement of a

Work  Force  Distance (Joules)

Heat  Mass  Specific  Temperatur e difference (Joules)

• A specified collection of matter is called a system, which is

Isolated System: No matter or energy cross system

Example: A thermo flask containing hot or cold liquid.

• Example: Earth is a closed system because all important

• Example: An open tank of water

• Extensive: These variables or properties depend on the

• Intensive: These variables or properties DO NOT depend

Kelvin Scale: universally accepted scale

T (in C)  T (in K)  273.15

• i.e. the Triple point of Water

Celsius: Water freezes at 0 C, boils at 100 C

Fahrenheit: Water freezes at 32 F, boils at 212 F

• The average surface temperature of Saturn's largest moon

• The temperature on the Moon varies from - 230°C, at night,

• If two objects are in thermal

• Two objects are defined to have

If A is in thermal equilibrium with B and B is in thermal

• objects at thermal equilibrium have same T

• Some important concepts:

• Constants: In science, a constant is a measurement, usually

• Example: An example of a constant would be "number of

• Variable: A variable is something that changes. The change

• Example: An example of a variable is "the number of hours

a … coefficient of linear expansion

b … coefficient of volume expansion

• The ideal gas law is the equation of state of a

- Gas molecules don’t interact upon collision

• TABLE 21-3: Values of

ruled so that the millimeter Ice 51

• An insulated cylinder fitted with a piston contains oxygen at a

a) What is the conversion formula from Celsius to Q?

b) What are Tbp,water and Tmp,water in Q?

• 21-6: At what temperature is the Fahrenheit scale reading equal to

• 21-15: A glass window is 200cm by 300 cm at 10C. By how much

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