BAT 213:

MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS

LECTURE 3
ZONATION AND ORGANISMS
IN INTERTIDAL ZONE
ZONATION SCHEMES FOR PACIFIC COAST OF NORTH AMERICA

ZONE Stephenson & Ferguson (1984) Rafaelli and

Stephenson (1972) Big Sur Coast, Hawkins
Pacific Grove, California (1996)
California Interpretation
1 SUPRALITTORAL SPLASH ZONE LITTORAL FRINGE
FRINGE Littorina
Littorina Ligia
Ligia
2 UPPER HIGH ZONE EULITTORAL
MID-INTERTIDAL Porphyra
Balanus Collisella
Tetraclita
3 LOWER MID ZONE
MID-INTERTIDAL Pagurus
Chthamalus Mytilus
Thais
4 INFRALITTORAL LOW ZONE SUBLITTORAL
FRINGE Sponges
Alaria Bryozoans
Lessoniopsis Tunicates
 CAUSES OF ZONATION
• Most concentrated on physical and chemical conditions;
• Some argued zonation consequence of interspecific
competetion;
• Supralittoral marine organisms subject to greater
dehydration and extreme of salinity. Thus have greater
tolerence to these factors.
• Some suggest upper limit of zone determined by
tolerences to env. factors while lower limits determined
by effects of competition. Note that this is not always
true.
– Hawkins and Hartnoll (1985) – remove competitors enable alga
species to extend zone at both ends
 CAUSES OF ZONATION: Cont.

• At first thought tide cause zonation. By

itself it does not;
• Still not able to correlate general pattern of
zonation with external factors.
INTERTIDAL ZONE: 4 MAJOR GRADIENT

• Vertical Gradient From Sea to Land

• Horizontal Gradient of Exposure to
Wave Action
• Marine and Freshwater Gradient of
Salinity
• Particle Size Gradient
 VERTICAL GRADIENT FROM LAND TO SEA

• Most shore plants and animals are marine

species
• If move from low water to splash zone,
env. becomes increasingly harsh.
• Sea is relatively constant environment
– temp fluctuation about 10C only. Salinity quite const
 VERTICAL GRADIENT FROM LAND TO SEA

At Higher Level:

• longer emmersion (out of water)

• air temp more variable
• salinity of rock pools can vary considerably
• most important stress – dessication
• in polar areas – extreme cold temp
• time available for feeding and resp. reduced
• filter feeders (barnacles and mussels) can only
feed when surrounded by water
• seaweeds take up nutrients from water
 BAT 213:
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS

LECTURE 4
Horizontal Gradient of Exposure to
Wave Action
• Wave exposure is horizontal gradient.
• Exposure means how much wave action
shore experience not exposure to air.
• Gradient of water movement determined
by strength of wind and fetch.
 Wave Action Impacts on Biological
Characteristics of Shore

• On steep cliffs facing hugh breakers, only

species with firm hold
• On sheltered shores, can find grasses, trees etc
• Areas exposed to waves may be good for some
species
– suspension feeders eg mussels and barnacles
– sessile predators – sea anemones
• Sheltered shores better for others
– sea weeds, crabs
 Particle Size Gradient
• Shores have different average particle
size
• few µm in mudflats, few hundred µm in
sandy beaches, few cm in gravel
• Particle size of shore determine by
geological history, wave actions and
current
MARINE AND FRESHWATER GRADIENT

• Oceanic water 35 ppt

• Salinity of coastal areas reduced by
freshwater input
• Salinity gradient can be seen at estuaries
• Salinity fluctuations can also occur in vert.
gradient (rock pool)
• In mudflats can have trapped water (FW
or high salinity)
 INTERACTIONS BETWEEN GRADIENTS

• Note that gradients do not normally

act independently
INTERACTION BETWEEN PARTICLE SIZE AND
(WAVE) EXPOSURE

• Possibly most important process that shape

biological characteristics of shore;
• For v. large particle habitat (rocky shore)
organisms small compared to particle size;
• In muddy or sandy shore, organisms larger than
particle size. Include infauna and interstitial
meiofauna;
• Interactions between exposure, shore profile and
particle size have profound effects on living
conditions within sediment;
INTERACTION BETWEEN PARTICLE SIZE AND (WAVE)
EXPOSURE (cont.)

• Exposed, well-drained, coarse sandy beaches

normally with limited bacterial activity, well
oxygenated and have orange-golden
appearance;
• Sheltered water-logged mudflats have high
bacteria biomass, almost black in appearance
and strong smell of H2S
 BAT 213:
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS

LECTURE 5
INTERTIDAL ZONE: 3 SEDIMENT TYPES
• Type 1:
– Large particle size properly arranged;
– Regular particle size;
– Plenty of spaces between particles;
– Water pass quickly
– Will easily dry up
• Type 2:
– Small and regular particle size properly arranged;
– Less spaces between particles;
– Water pass slowly
INTERTIDAL ZONE: 3 SEDIMENT TYPES (cont)

• Type 3:
– Irregular particle size not properly arranged;
– Smaller particles fill in spaces between large particles;
– Difficult for water to pass through;

Note:
Advantage of this area: always moist
Disadvantage: Limiting factor is oxygen supply
 Types of sediment and their ability to retain water

Type 1: Type 2: Type 3:

Well-sorted (course) Well-sorted (fine) Poorly-sorted
Drains easily Drains easily Water blocked
Note:
1. Normally fine sediments are
found in bays and lagoon while course
sediments are found in areas exposed
current and waves. Why?
 MARINE SEDIMENT
– Except for surface layer, marine sediments
are normally anaerobic and rich in hydrogen
sulphide, methane, ferrous ions, etc.;
– Bottom layer inhospitable to most
organisms;
– Between areas of aerobic and anaerobic
decomposition lies zone of rapid transition.
Here redox potential (Eh) changes
dramatically.
– Transitional zone called ‘redox discontinuity’
 MARINE SEDIMENT: cont.
– Depth of redox discontinuity layer (RDL)
depend on quantity of organic matter and
rate oxygen can diffuse from overlying
water;
• Organic mud: aerobic surface layer 1 – 2 mm
• Sandy areas: a few decimeters

– Most organisms can live below RDL if they

can oxygenate their immediate
surroundings;
• Burrow system that opens to surface;
ORGANISMS IN THE INTERTIDAL
ZONE
 ORGANISMS IN INTERTIDAL ZONE

• Most common organisms in the intertidal

zone are small and relatively
uncomplicated. Why?
 High Tide Zone
• Flooded during high tide only
• Highly saline environment
• Can’t sustain large amounts of vegetation
– Not enough water
• Can also contain rock pools inhabited by
small fish
• Predominant organisms:
ORGANISMS IN HIGH TIDE ZONE

Brittle stars

Barnacles

Green algae Sea Anemone Crabs

ANIMALS IN HIGH TIDE ZONE

Whelk

Isopod

Mussel Snail Limpet

 Middle tide zone
• Submerged and flooded for approximately equal
periods of time per tide cycle
• Temperatures less extreme
• Salinity only marginally higher than ocean
• Wave action generally more extreme than the
high tide zone
• Much higher population of marine vegetation
• Organisms more complex and often larger than
those found in high tide zone
 Organisms in Middle Tide Zone: cont.

• Organisms include anemones, barnacles, chitons, snails,

limpets, crabs, green algae, isopods, limpets, mussels
etc.

Sponges
Sea lettuce Whelk
Ulva lactuca
 Organisms in Middle Tide Zone: cont.

• rock pools can also provide a habitat for

small fish, shrimps, krill, sea urchins and
zooplankton.

Sea urchin

Zooplankton:
Amphipod, copepod,
Ceratium (dinoflagellate)
 Low Tide Zone (lower littoral)

• Mostly submerged;
• Mainly exposed during low tide;
• Great diversity and abundance of organisms;
• Much more marine vegetation, especially
seaweeds;
• Organisms normally not adapted to dryness and
extreme temperatures;
 Organisms in Low Tide Zone

• abalone, anemones, brown seaweed,

chitons, crabs, green algae, hydroids,
isopods, limpets, mussels, nudibranchs,
sculpin, sea cucumber, sea lettuce, sea
palms, sea stars, sea urchins, shrimp,
snails, sponges, surf grass, tube worms,
and whelks
Abelone

Nudibranch

Sculpin
– can live few hours
out of water
 Organisms in Low Tide Zone: cont.

• Animals in this area can grow larger (more

energy);
• Bigger vegetation due to better water
coverage;
• Salinity almost normal;
• Protected from large predators because
quite shallow.
 Algae in Intertidal Zone
• 3 different groups: Chlorophyta (green
algae), Rhodophyta (red algae), and
Phaeophyta (the brown algae).
• Very important to other organisms that
inhabits the intertidal zone. Some species
protect other organisms from desiccation
from the sun and other harsh weathers.
 Algae in Intertidal Zone: cont.
• Choloryphyta (The Green Algae)
– These species are stringy and sometimes
form a "lettuce"-like structure, though each
species are somewhat distinct in their
morphology. What species of green algae
can be found on our shore?
 Algae in Intertidal Zone: cont.
• Rhodophyta (The Red Algae)
– These species of algae have forms of
crustose (grown in rocks) , coraline (cell wall
with calcium), and filaments that are thick and
fleshy in morphology. Some are
dichotimously branched and some are not.
Example: Chondrus crispus. What are the
common species of red algae on our shore?
 Algae in Intertidal Zone: cont.
• Phaeophyta (The Brown Algae)
– Have forms of crust, felt-like mats, bushy,
sheet-like in morphology.
– Have blades and have a stem and their roots
are attached to rock or some form of solid
structure.
– Example: Ascophyllum nodosum. What are
the common species of brown algae on our
shore?
SPECIES INTERACTIONS IN INTERTIDAL ZONE

• Predation
• Competition
• Facilitation
• Indirect Interaction
 SPECIES INTERACTIONS IN INTERTIDAL ZONE:
Predation

– Classic study by Paine (1974) shows lower

limit of mussel (Mytilus californianus)
determined by presence of predator starfish
Pisaster ochraceus. Limit will be extended if
starfish removed

Paine, R. T. 1974. Intertidal community structure: experimental studies

on the relationship between a dominant competitor and its principal
predator. Oecologia 15:93-120. In: Nybakken J.W.(ed) 1986.
Readings in Marine Ecology 2nd Edition.
SPECIES INTERACTIONS IN INTERTIDAL ZONE:
Competition

– especially fierce in rocky intertidal habitats,

where habitable space is limited;
– Joseph Connell’s research on two types of
high intertidal barnacles, a Balanus and a
Chthamalus species, showed that zonation
patterns could also be set by competition
between closely related organisms
 Types of Competition:
• Exploitative competition is the differential ability of
competitors to harvest a limiting resource; which limits
the supply that other organisms need to survive that is
incapable of harvesting resources at a much rapid pace.
• Preemptive competition occurs when a competitor
recruits to and dominates a habitat, monopolizing all
available space, precluding the establishment of
potential competitors
• Interference competition occurs when competitors
physically deprive other organism’s access to
resources.
 SPECIES INTERACTIONS: Facilitation and
Indirect Interactions
• Facilitation occurs when an organism A
benefits from presence of organism B but
not the other way
• Indirect interactions: eg.
– Species A eats so much of species B
resulting in decrease in predation on species
C. Species C thus increases in number