0-1air Theory

Air Theory
Objectives & Contents
 Course Objectives :
 At the end of the courses students will be able to:
1. Understand the basic Fundamentals of compressed air.

2. Understand the working principals of main types of compressors.
3. Understand air drying and the drying methods.
4. Understand air filtration.
2
Objectives & Contents
 Table of Contents :
 Chapter 1 : Introduction
 Chapter 2 : Basic Definitions
 Chapter 3 : Applications of compressed air
 Chapter 4 : Types of Compressors
 Chapter 5 : Working Principals
 Chapter 6 : Air Drying
 Chapter 7 : Air Filtration
 Chapter 8 : Compressed Air System Arrangement
3
Basics of Air Compressors
1. Introduction
1. Introduction
1.1 What is Air ?
 We live at the bottom of a sea called

atmosphere.
 Atmosphere is a layer
of gases surrounding a planet or
other material body, that is held in place
by the gravity of that body
 Atmosphere is made up of Air
5
1. Introduction
1.1 What is Air ?
 Air is a colorless, odorless and tasteless

gaseous.
–
It contains: N2:78%
78% nitrogen
– 21% oxygen
– 1% others
This composition is relatively constant, from sea
level up to an altitude of 25 kilometers.
 Atmospheric air is always more or less contaminated
with solid particles, for example, dust, sand, soot and
O2:21%
salt crystals and also includes water vapor.
Other gases H2O up to 4% at 40°C; atm
6
1. Introduction
1.1 What is Air ?
 Air is a gaseous envelope that surrounds

the earth exerting pressure on everything
 Actual air pressure depends on your

location relative to sea level
7
1. Introduction
1.1 What is Air ?
 Air press on the earth = Atmospheric

pressure
– The air pressure depends on the
relative location from the sea
level.
 At sea level: 1 bar
 Above sea level: <1 bar
 Below sea level: >1 bar
 Height ↑ 1000m => pressure

↓0,1 bar (psi)
Sea Level
The force on a square centimeter area of an air column which
runs from sea level to the edge of the atmosphere, is about
10.13 N 8
1. Introduction
1.2 What is Compressed Air ?
 Compress: To press together or force

into a smaller space; condense
 When controlled, this compressed air

can be used to perform work
9
1. Introduction
1.2 What is Compressed Air ?
 If the volume of a given amount of

air decreases, the pressure will
increase.
Volume ↓ => Pressure ↑
Final volume
 The pressure in the balloon is of the balloon
increased due to decrease in the Initial Volume
volume. of the balloon
12
1. Introduction
1.3 Effective Pressure .
Pressure in the ball Pressure in the ball Pressure in the ball

= 0 bar = Atmospheric pressure > Atmospheric pressure
= 1 bar = 2 bar
i.e. Absolute pressure

= 0 bar (perfect vacuum)
i.e. Absolute pressure i.e. Absolute pressure
= 1 bar = 2 bar Atmospheric
pressure 1 bar
Atmospheric Atmospheric Atmospheric

Plastic ball pressure 1 bar Plastic ball pressure 1 bar Pump Plastic ball pressure 1 bar
 Absolute pressure is the total pressure measured from zero (perfect vacuum )
13
1. Introduction
Pressure in the ball = 2 bar

Pressure in the ball
> Atmospheric pressure
= 2 bar
Pressure ( in bar)
Atmospheric
Plastic ball pressure 1 bar
 Absolute pressure is the total pressure measured from zero (perfect vacuum)
 Effective pressure is the total pressure measured from the atmosheric pressure.
 The effective pressure is the difference between absolute pressure and
atmospheric pressure
 Effective pressure = Absolute pressure – Atmospheric pressure
14
1. Introduction
 The pressure in the ball is equal to

Absolute pressure = 1 bar the atmospheric pressure
0 bar  The effective pressure is 0.
Effective pressure
 The fan does not rotate
Atmospheric
Plastic ball pressure 1 bar
15
1. Introduction
 The absolute pressure in the ball is 2 bar
 The effective pressure is 1 bar.
Absolute pressure = 2 bar
1 bar
 The fan is rotating
Effective pressure
 The absolute pressure in the ball is 3 bar

Atmospheric
Pump Plastic ball pressure 1 bar
 The effective pressure is 2 bar.
 The fan is rotating even faster
Absolute pressure = 3 bar

 The effective pressure is the pressure
2 bar
available to deliver work.
Effective pressure
Atmospheric
Pump Plastic ball pressure 1 bar
16
2. Basic Definitions
 2.1 Absolute Pressure

The sum of the gauge and atmospheric pressures
(7 bar(g) + 1 bar(atm.) = 8 bar(a) “absolute”)
 2.2 Pressure Ratio

The ratio of the absolute discharge pressure to the absolute
inlet pressure (7 bar(g) + 1 bar(atm.) / 1 bar(atm.) = 8 ratios
18
 2.3 Relative Humidity

RH is defined as the ratio between the actual water content to the
amount of water the air can possibly hold at the same temperature
 2.4 Dew Point

The temperature of a gas at a given pressure at which vapor
will start to condense.
- Atmospheric Dew Point “ ADP “
- Pressure Dew Point “ PDP “
19
 2.5 Capacity
Quantity of gas actually delivered, typically referred back to
inlet conditions at pressure, temperature and moisture Nm3/hr,
Sm3/hr, Im3/hr, Free air m3/min, FAD
 Free Air Delivery (FAD m3/min or L/s or cfm)

The compressor’s output flow rate is recalculated to a free air volume rate at the standard inlet condition (inlet pressure 1 bar(a) and inlet temperature 20°C).
 Inlet Air Delivery (I m3/min, ICFM or I l/s)

The air flow in as it enters the air compressor intake.
 Actual Air delivery (m3/min) (Site Conditions)

The actual air flow rate according to the site conditions , This is the actual volume flow rate in the pipework after the compressor
 Standard Air Delivery (Sm3/min or SCFM)

The air flow rate is recalculated to “the standard state”, i.e. conventionally chosen as 1.013 bar(a) , 0% RH and 20 °C.
 Normal Air Delivery (Nm3/hr)

The air flow rate is recalculated to “the normal state”, i.e. conventionally chosen as 1.013 bar(a) , 0% RH and 0°C.
20
 2.6 Normal Air Conditions :(e.g. Nm3/hr)

A given volume of air defined at “normal” condition.
Normal Condition is referred as: 1 bar(a), 0 deg C, 0% RH
 2.7 Standard Air Conditions :

20°C (68°F) , 0% RH, & Ambient Pressure: 1 bar (14.5 psi)
21
 2.8 Power
Is the total mechanical input required including, compression power
and all frictional losses
 2.9 Specific Energy Requirement (joules/liter)

Shaft input per unit of compressor capacity (e.g. power/flow)
22
 2.10 Intercooling*
Cooling of the gas between stages of compression
1. Reducing the temperature
2. Reducing the volume to the succeeding stage
3. Liquefy condensable vapors to reduce power
(all of the above in order to reduce power)
*This is significant for a multi stage compressor
23
3. Applications of compressed air

3.1 Industrial Applications .
Food & Beverage

Food conservation and production
Medical and dental applications
25
Chemical and Petrochemical plants Gas separation and nitrogen production
Construction and other industries Water treatment and fish farming
26
Automobile and other manufacturing
Transport
27
Textile Mining
And many other applications
28
Blowing Vacum
Air Motors Pumps Tools Sensing
Pneumatically operated machinery
29
3.3 Compressed Air requirements .
 Compressed air is used in different applications in different industies.

They all have their proper demands and requirements on:
– Pressure
– Flow
– Quality of the air
 Oil
 Water
 Solid particles
– Noise
33
4. Types of Compressors
What is an Air Compressor ?
 Air compressor is a machine that delivers a certain flow of air to a certain application and converts power ( usually
from an electric motor or a diesel engine) into kinetic energy by compressing and pressurizing air into the application air
net.
 A compressor can withstand working against pressure/compression.
Types of air compressors
 Based on the operating principle
- Positive-displacement compressor - Dynamic compressor
 Based on the number of compression elements/stages

- Single stage compressor - Multi stage compressor
 Based on the operating pressure

–Low pressure compressors , up to 3.5 bar
–Medium pressure compressors , 4 to 13 bar
–High pressure compressors , 20-100 bar
–Super high pressure compressors , above 100 bar
 Based on the flow rate

–Low capacity compressors (ex. scroll, piston ,)
–Medium capacity compressors (ex. Tooth ,screw)
–High capacity compressors (ex. Centrifugal )
 Based on the cooling method

–Air cooled compressor
–Water cooled compressor
Compressors
Positive Displacement Dynamic

Compressors Compressors
44
There are two basic types of compressors
DISPLACEMENT
Displacement compressors work on the
principle of reducing a volume to create
compression.
DYNAMIC
Dynamic compressors work on the
principle of using kinetic energy of the air
mass to create compression.
4.1 Dynamic Compressors
 Kinetic energy is converted to pressure
– In dynamic compression air is drawn into a rapid Suction

rotating compression impeller and accelerates to
a high speed. The gas is then discharged
through a diffuser and the speed is forced to
decelerate, where the kinetic energy is
transformed to static pressure. Diffusor
– Depending on the main direction of the gas flow
used, these compressors are called radial or
axial compressors.
47
Dynamic compressors are available in:

 Axial design: turbo compressors
 Radial design: centrifugal compressors
A dynamic compressor works with a constant pressure.

The performance of a dynamic compressor is affected by external conditions.
– Example: A small change in the inlet pressure results in a large change in the
capacity.
48
 Types of dynamic compressors:
Ejector Radial ( Centrifugal ) Axial
49
4.2 Positive Displacement Compressors
 Reducing the volume of the gas increases its pressure
– In displacement compressors air is drawn into a compression chamber. By

reducing the volume of this chamber, the pressure of the air will increase.
Inlet valve
Outlet valve
Piston
Inlet valve
Compressing
Outlet valve
Piston
Inlet valve
Compressing
Outlet valve
Piston
50
 Compression principle: Inlet valve
Outlet valve
– At point 1, the inlet valve and the
Pressure
outlet valve are closed. Piston
Volume
51
Inlet valve
Outlet valve
Piston
Compressing
Outlet valve
Piston
– As the piston moves from point 1 Inlet valve

Compressing
to point 2, the volume reduces Outlet valve
Piston
and the pressure increases.
Pressure
= compressing
As the piston moves forward the
– During compressing the inlet air gets compressed and reaches
point 2
valve and the outlet valve are

closed.
Volume of the air reduces and the

pressure increases
Volume
52
Inlet valve
Compressing
 Compression principle: Outlet valve

Piston
Inlet valve
– At point 2 the outlet valve gets open. Discharging

Outlet valve Piston
– The piston moves from point 2 to
Pressure
point 3. Discharging
– During this movement, the air gets

discharged at constant pressure.
Compressing
Volume
53
Inlet valve
 Compression principle: Discharging
Outlet valve Piston
– At point 3 the outlet valve gets closed Inlet valve

Pressure reduction
– The piston moves back from point 3 Outlet valve Piston
to point 4.
Pressure
– During this movement, the volume Discharging
gets increased and the pressure gets

reduced.
Pressure
Compressing
reduction
Volume
54
Outlet valve
Pressure reduction
Piston
– At point 4 the inlet valve gets Inlet valve

Suction
open. Outlet valve Piston
– The piston moves back from point
Pressure
4 to point 1. Discharging
– During this movement, the

volume increase and gets filled
with air at atmospheric pressure. Pressure
Compressing
reduction
– At point 1 the inlet valve gets
closed and the process will
continuously repeate.
Suction
Volume
55
Types of displacement compressors:

 Single rotor:
Vane Liquid ring Scroll
 Double rotor:
Screw Tooth Blower
56
Types of displacement compressors:
 Piston compressors:
Single acting Double acting Diaphragm Labyrinth sealed
57
4.3 Comparaison
 A Centrifugal compressor is
Pressure
a machine with:
– variable capacity.
– constant pressure.
Centrifugal
compressor
 A displacement compressor
is a machine with:
– constant capacity.
Displacement Compressor
– variable pressure.
Flow/capacity
58
4.4 Oil Injected Compressors
 At Oil Injected Compressors:
– Oil is injected with Air inside the compression chambers.

– In order to separate oil from air at discharge there is an Oil Separator unit.
– The functions of oil are:

– Cooling:
compression heat is absorbed by the oil.
– Lubrication:
Lubrication of gears, rotors and bearings
– Sealing:
Sealing between rotors and rotor housing
– Corrosion protection:
Corrosion protection of the internal metal parts
59
4.5 Oil Free Compressors
 At Oil Free Compressors:
– No oil is injected inside the compression chambers.

– No need for Oil separator.
60
4.6 Water Injected Compressors
 At Water Injected Compressors:
– Water is injected with Air inside the compression chambers.

– In order to separate water from air at discharge there is an Water
Separator unit.
61
5. Working Principals
5.1 Screw Compressors
Female rotor
The screw element’s main parts are the male and Male rotor
the female rotors, wich move towards each other
while the volume between them and the housing
decreases.
5.1 Screw Compressors
Suction: Compression Compression Delivery:

starts: progresses:
As the rotors turn,
the compartment Compressed air
The ends of the The air is leaves through
becomes
rotors uncover entrapped in the the outlet port.
progressively
the inlet: air “compartment”
smaller,thereby
enters the formed by a
compressing the
compression male lobe and a
entrapped air.
chamber. female flute.
The volume of the air or gas is progressively reduced

along the length of the screw, causing a pressure increase
5.2 Tooth Compressors
 The compression element in a tooth compressor

consists of two rotors that rotate towards each
other in a compression chamber.
65
5.2 Tooth Compressors
 The compression process consists of intake, compression and outlet.
– intake : air is drawn into the compression chamber until the rotors block the inlet.
– compression : the drawn in air is in the compression chamber, which gets smaller and
smaller as the rotors move.
 Outlet = closed; inlet = open.
– Outlet: (discharge) when one of the rotors opens the channel

 Compressed air is forced out of compressor chamber
66
5.3 Scroll Compressors
 The compressor element consists of a fixed

spiral in an element housing and a motor
powered eccentric, moveable spiral.
67
5.3 Scroll Compressors
 Compression process:
– The moving spiral is driven by a short stroke crankshaft and runs eccentrically around
the centre of the fixed spiral.
– Intake: at the top of the element housing.
– When the moving spiral runs clockwise, air is drawn in, captured in one of the air
pockets and compressed variably in towards the centre
– where the outlet and a non-return valve are situated.
68
5.4 Piston Compressons
 Compression process:
Compression in a Piston compressor is characterized by enclosing a volume of gas or air and then increasing the pressure by reducing the area of the enclosed
volume.
Lubricated Oil Free
69
5.5 Booster Compressors

 A booster compressor is a compressor that works with
air that has been compressed and compresses it to a
higher pressure. It is used to compensate the pressure
drop in long pipelines or in applications where a higher
pressure is required for a sub-process.
 Compression may be single or multi-staged and the

compressor can be of a dynamic or displacement type,
but piston compressors are the most common.
 The power requirement for a booster compressor

increases with a rising pressure ratio, while the mass
flow drops. The curve for power requirement as a
function of the intake pressure has the same general
form as the curve for a vacuum pump.
5.6 Pressure Intensifiers
 Pressure intensifiers increase the pressure in a
medium, for example, for laboratory tests of valve, pipes
and hoses. A pressure of 7 bar can be amplified in a
single stage to 200 bar or up to 1700 bar in multi-staged
equipment.
 The pressure intensifier is only available for very small

flows. When the high pressure chamber is filled, the low
pressure piston is lifted. When the propellant flows in, the
piston is pressed downwards and forces the medium out
under high pressure.
 The intensifier can work in a cycling process, up until a

preset pressure level. All inert gases can be compressed
in this way. Air can also be compressed in a pressure
intensifier, but must be completely oil-free to avoid
selfignition.
5.7 Axial Compressors
 An axial compressor has axial flow, the air or gas
passes along the compressor shaft through rows of
rotating and stationary impellers. In this way the velocity
of the air is gradually increased at the same time as the
stationary blades convert the kinetic energy to pressure.
The lowest volume flow rate through such a compressor
is about 15 m3/s.
 A balancing drum is usually built into the compressor to

counterbalance axial thrust. Axial compressors are
generally smaller than equivalent centrifugal
compressors and work ordinarily with about a 25% higher
speed. They are used for constant high volume rate of
flow at a relatively moderate pressure. With the
exception of gas turbine applications the pressure ratio is
seldom higher than 6. The normal flow is approx. 65
m3/s and effective pressure up to approx. 14 bar(e).
(Picture right; Axial compressor example)
5.8 Centrifugal Compressors

 The centrifugal compressor is characterised by the radial discharge flow. Air is drawn into the centre of a rotating
impeller with radial blades and is thrown out towards the periphery of the impeller by centrifugal forces. Before the air
is led to the centre of the next impeller, it passes a diffuser and a volute where the kinetic energy is converted to
pressure. The pressure ratio across each stage is determined by the compressors final pressure. This also gives a
suitable velocity increase for the air after each impeller. The air temperature at the inlet of each stage has a decisive
significance for the compressors power requirement, which is why cooling between stages is needed. Centrifugal
compressors with up to six stages and pressure up to 25 bar are not uncommon.
 The impeller can have either an open or closed design. Open is the most common with air applications. The impeller
is normally made of special stainless steel alloy or aluminium. The speed is very high compared with other types of
compressor, 15,000-100,000 r/min are common. This means that journalling on the compressor shaft takes place
using plain bearings instead of rolling bearings. Rolling bearings are used on single stage compressors with a low
pressure ratio. Often multi-stage compressors have two impellers mounted on each end of the same shaft to
counteract the axial loads caused by the pressure differences.
 The lowest volume flow rate through a centrifugal compressor is primarily determined by the flow through the last
stage. A practical limit value of 160 l/s in the outlet from a horizontal split machine is often a rule-of-thumb.
 Each centrifugal compressor must be sealed in a suitable manner to reduce leakage along the shaft where it passes
through the compressor housing. Many types of seal are used and the most advanced can be found on compressors
with a high speed intended for high pressures. The four most common types are labyrinth seals, ring seals, (usually
graphic seals that work dry, but even sealing liquids are used), mechanical seals and hydrostatic seals.
5.8 Centrifugal Compressors
5.9 Diaphragm Compressors

 Diaphragm compressors form another group. The
diaphragm is actuated mechanically or hydraulically.
 The mechanical diaphragm compressors are used

with a small flow and low pressure or as vacuum pumps.
 The hydraulic diaphragm compressors are used for

high pressure.
5.10 Liquid Ring Compressors
 The liquid ring compressor is a displacement compressor with
built-in pressure ratio.
 The rotor has fixed blades and is eccentrically mounted in a
housing, which is partly filled with a liquid. The blade wheel
transports the liquid around in the compressor housing and a ring of
liquid is formed around the compressor housing wall by means of
centrifugal force. The liquid ring lies eccentrically to the rotor as the
compressor housing has an oval form. The volume between the
blade wheel varies cyclically.
 The compressor is usually designed with two symmetrical, opposite
compression chambers to avoid radial thrust on the bearings.
 Cooling in a liquid ring compressor is direct, due to the contact
between the liquid and the air, and means the temperature increase
on the compressed air is very little. However, losses through viscous
friction between the housing and the blades are high.
 The air becomes saturated with compressor liquid, which normally
is water. Other liquids can also be used, for example, to absorb a
specific constituent part of the gas to be compressed or to protect
the compressor against corrosion when aggressive gases are
compressed.
5.11 Vane Compressors

 The operating principle for a vane compressor is the
same as for many compressed air motors. The vanes are
usually manufactured of special cast alloys and most
compressors are oil lubricated. A rotor with radially
movable blades is eccentrically mounted in a stator
housing. When it rotates the vanes are pressed against
the stator walls by centrifugal force. Air is drawn in when
the distance between the rotor and stator is increasing.
The air is captured in different compressor pockets,
which decrease in volume with rotation. The air is
discharged when the vanes pass the outlet port.
Roots Blowers
 A blower is not a displacement compressor as it works
without internal compression.
 When the compression chamber comes into contact with
the outlet, compressed air floods in from the pressure side.
It is first here that compression takes place, when the
volume of the compression chamber decreases with
continued rotation. Accordingly, compression takes place
against full counter-pressure, which results in low efficiency
and a high noise level. Two identical, normally symmetrical,
counter-rotating rotors work in a housing with flat ends and
a cylindrical casing. The rotors are synchronised by means
of a gear wheel.
 Blowers are usually air cooled and oil-free . The low

efficiency limits the blowers to low pressure applications
and compression in a single stage, even if two and three
stage versions are available.
 Blowers are frequently used as vacuum pumps and for
pneumatic conveyance.
Roots Blowers
Vacuum Pumps
 A vacuum means a lower pressure than atmospheric pressure. A vacuum pump is a compressor
that works in this pressure range.
 A typical characteristic of a vacuum pump is that they work with a very high pressure ratio,
however despite this, multi-stage machines are common. Multi-stage compressed air compressors
can also be used for vacuums within the pressure range 1 bar(a) and 0.1 bar(a).
Fixed Speed Compressors
 The Compressor element is driven by an electric motor.

 The Electric motor control is either Star / Delta or Direct On Line “DOL”
 The Pressure regulation is set up that we have :
NO- Load Pressure & Loading Pressure
 The Operation of the compressor depends on these two setting which activates the loading
soleniods allowing air to enter the compressor element or not.
81
Variable Speed Drive « VSD » Compressors
 The Compressor element is driven by an electric motor.

 The Electric motor is controlled via a frequency convertor.
 The Pressure regulation is set up that we have only Loading Pressure
 The Air delivery is proportional to the load demand.
82
Frequency Converter
Controller
Set Point
Pressure
Sensor
Air
Net
Free Air Delivery
Compressor Screw Element VSD Main Motor
83
0.6 BAR
STANDARD LOAD/UNLOAD 0.6 bar CUSTOMER

PROCESS
PRESSURE
MODULATING CONTROL 0.4 bar
VSD 0.2 bar
84
Atlas Copco Offers the Best Technology For the Right Application
scroll 1-15KW
tooth 15-45KW
SPECIFIC ENERGY J/L
screw OIS 5-500KW

OFS 55-900KW
centrifugal
450-…KW
FLOW L/s
Ex. SOME SELECTION CRITERIA
Conditions Screw Dynamic

CAPACITY
< 1000 l/s ++ --
1000-1500 l/s + -
1500 – 2200 l/s = =
> 2200l/s -- ++
TEMPERATURE
Low + -
High = +
LOAD
Base = =
Fluctuating = (VSD ++) -
DISCHARGE PRESSURE
Constant - (VSD ++) + (only for CPC)
SPEED FLUCTUATION
(negative frequency) - (VSD =) ---

Oil Free Compressors Models :
Oil Free compressors :
1- ZT <50 kw : oil free tooth compressor – air cooled – double stage
2- ZT>50kw : oil free screw compressor – air cooled – double stage
3- ZR : oil free screw compressor – water cooled – double stage
4- ZH : oil free centrifugal compressor – water cooled – double/three stage
5- SF : oil free scroll compressor – air cooled – single stage
6- AQ : oil free screw compressor – water Injected-water cooled – single stage
7- ZE : oil free screw low press. compressor – air cooled – single stage
8- ZA : oil free screw low press. compressor – water cooled – single stage
9- LF,LFX : oil free piston compressor – air cooled
10- Crepplle “P,S” : oil-free piston High pres. Compressors up to 40 bar – water cooled.
11- Crepplle “ZD” : oil-free piston High pres. Compressors – water cooled – it consists of ZR
screw compressor and D booster for 40 bar applications.
12- ZG : single-stage , water-cooled screw compressor, booster oil-free Nitrogen.
Oil Free Blowers Models :
Oil Free Blowers :
1- ZL : oil free roots blower
2- ZS : oil free screw blower
3- ZB : oil free centrifugal blower
Oil Injected Compressors Models :
Oil Injected compressors :
1- GA : oil Injected screw compressor – air cooled – single stage
2- GA “W” : oil Injected screw compressor – water cooled – single stage
3- GX : oil Injected screw compressor – air cooled – single stage
4- GR : oil Injected screw high press. Compressor up to 25 bar – air cooled – double
stage
4- GR “W”: oil Injected screw high press. Compressor up to 25 bar – water cooled
double stage
5- GN : oil Injected screw compressor – air cooled with Dual air & nitrogen outlet –
single stage
6- LE,LT : oil Injected piston compressor – air cooled
6. Air Drying
Composition of air
 Air, the medium which we are using in
our products is almost perfect, always
available, not aggressive nor explosive,
at no cost etc.
 There is however one disadvantage
with air in the way we use it: it always
contains water.
 And water is not wanted in the
compressed air system.
 Composition
 Atmospheric air is a mixture of different

gasses of which the composition is the
following:
 Nitrogen: 78%
 Oxygen: 21%
 Others: 1%
 “Others” consists mainly of Argon.
Other
Composition of air
Air contains water...

Composition of air
Watervapour
Other
Humidity
 What is humidity ? 1200
1000
800
Pws (mbar)
 Humidity = the presence of water
600
vapour in air
400
200
 Air has the capacity to adsorb water
0
vapour 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Temperature (°C)
 This capacity depends mainly on

the temperature
Water vapour table
Humidity
At any particular temperature,
air that contains its full capacity of water vapour
is said to be Saturated
The Relative Humidity of the air expresses

250
how fully saturated the air is with water vapour
200
100%
150 SATURATED
60%
g/m³
100
50
NOT
0
SATURATED
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
°C
The Relative Humidity
At any particular temperature,

air that contains its full capacity of water vapour
is said to be Saturated
The Relative Humidity
The Relative Humidity of the air expresses

how fully saturated the air is with water vapour
 R.H. is defined as the ratio between the water content to the amount of water the air can
possibly hold at the same temperature .
Relative humidity is what really matters:
PDP has to be related to ambient temperature to be meaningful
Consistent Air Quality - PDP vs. Ambient

Temperature
25.00
20.00
PDP (°C)
15.00
RH = 26%
10.00
5.00
0.00
15 25 35 45 55
Ambient Temperature (°C)
Air with a PDP of 3°C in a 25°C ambient has same

quality with a PDP of 20°C in a 45°C ambient.
Relative humidity is what really matters:
Provided the air quality is in the green zone, corrosion is not possible.
Dewpoint
 What is dewpoint ?
 Dewpoint
= The temperature of the air below which
condensation starts
= The temperature of the air where the air is
saturated
Influence of pressure
 What happens during Compression
Volume reduces - gm/m3 water vapour

increases in relation
to pressure ratio.
 Atmospheric Dewpoint (ADP)

= Dewpoint of air at atmospheric pressure
 Pressure Dewpoint (PDP)

= Dewpoint of air at given pressure
 The term pressure dew point (PDP) is used to describe the water content in the compressed air. It is the temperature at which
water vapour transforms into water at the current working pressure.
 Low PDP values indicate small amounts of water vapour in the compressed air. It is important to remember that atmospheric dew
point can not be compared with PDP when comparing different dryers.
 Example, a PDP of +2°C at 7 bar is equivalent to -23°C at atmospheric pressure.
 You can select the main type of drying equipment based on the pressure dew point. Seen from a cost point of view, the lower
the dew point required the higher operating costs for air drying.
 In principle, there are five methods to remove the moisture from compressed air: Cooling,
overcompression ,combinations ,absorption and adsorption. There is equipment available, based on these methods for different
types of compressed air systems.
 Calculation example: EXERCISE
– Compressed air pressure = 9 bar(g)

– PDP = +3°C
– Expansion to atmospheric pressure

ADP = ?
– PDP = +3°C  water content = 5,95 g/m³

– Expansion  volume *10  water content /10
– Water content  at atmospheric pressure = 0,60 g/m³
– ADP = -24°C
Why do we need dryers?
Do we have water at outlet of compressor ?
200 l/s 200 l/s 200 l/s

25 ° C 150 ° C 35 ° C
0 bar 7 bar 7 bar
RH : 60 % RH : 100 %
 Air in : at 25 ° C : Air can hold 23,05 g/m³

 Air in : RH = 60 % => actual water = 23,05 * 0,6 = 13,83 g/m³
 Air out of element : 7 bar(g) : water content is 13,83 * 8 = 110,64 g/m³
 Air out of cooler : 35 ° C : Air can hold 39,63 g/m³
 => condensate : 110,64-39,63 = 71 g/m³
Do we have water at outlet of compressor ?
200 l/s 200 l/s 200 l/s

25 ° C 150 ° C 153,36 l/day 35 ° C
0 bar 7 bar 7 bar
RH : 60 % RH : 100 %
85,6 l /day
 FAD : 200 l/s = 720 m³/h
 actual air flow = 720/8 = 90 m³/h
=> condensate : = 71 g/m³
 71 * 90 * 24 = 153,36 l / day seperated in aftercooler
 water in outlet air at 35 C = 39,63 * 90 * 24 = 85,6 l / day in air net !

Water in the air …
– Special design of compr. air net

– Rust particles
– Sludge
– Air leakages
– Freezing
– Bad finish
– Blocked orifices
– Shorter tool life
– Influences final product quality
Principles of air drying
– Cooling
– Overcompression
– Absorption
– Adsorption
– Combinations
– Osmosis / membrane dryers

Principle: cooling
Cooling water
Hot air Cooled air
AFTERCOOLER
Dewpoint = limited
= directly related to CW temp.
Air leaving aftercooler is always 100% saturated
Principle: cooling
REFRIGERATION DRYER
Principle: cooling
 How much water remains after FD? EXERCISE
Aftercooler FD
Air Net
200 l/s 200 l/s 200 l/s
25 ° C 150 ° C 153,36 l/day 35 ° C
0 bar 7 bar 7 bar
RH : 60 % RH : 100 %
PDP : +3°C
Principle: cooling
 How much water remains after FD? EXERCISE
Aftercooler FD
Air Net
200 l/s 200 l/s 200 l/s
25 ° C 150 ° C 151,8 l/day 35 ° C
0 bar 7 bar 7 bar
RH : 60 % RH : 100 %
PDP : +3°C
actual air flow = 720/8 = 90 m³/h

Water in air net = 85,6 l / day
 FD dryer : dewpoint : 3 °C => 5,9 g/m³

 water after FD dryer = 90 m³/h * 5,9 g/m³ = 0,53 l/h = 12,7 l / day
 So FD seperates : 85,6 – 12,7 = 72,9 l /day
Principle: overcompression
Principle: overcompression
 EXERCISE
outlet compressor = +26°C; 100% RH

required: PDP = +3°C
compression?
+26°C  24 g/m³
+3°C  6 g/m³ ratio = 24/6 = 4/1
 req. working pressure = 2 bar(a)  overcompression: 8 bar(a)

 req. working pressure = 10 bar(a)  overcompression: 40 bar(a)
Atlas Copco does not implement this method of drying

As it is not energy friendly.
Principle: absorption
 Chemical reaction links the water to the absorbant

 Absorbant cannot be regenerated => high operation cost
 Dewpoint reduction max -15 ° C
 Seperated water is corrosive
 Examples : NaCl, LiCl, ...
Principle: absorption
 Drying by absorption is a chemical process where the water vapour is bound to the absorption
material by chemical reaction.
 Absorption of water vapour can be made with both solid and liquid absorbents. The liquid
absorbents (sulphuric acids, glycerine glycol, etc.) are mostly used for air conditioning.
 Absorption by means of solid absorbents is used for compressed air drying. The most common types
of solid absorbents are of the deliquescent type which becomes liquid at the chemical reaction with
the water vapour.
 Exchange of absorbent must thus be made periodically.
 The continuous consumption of the absorbent results in quite high operating costs for this type of air
drying.
Principle: adsorption
Adsorption = a physical process
= done by molecular adhesion forces

 Drying by adsorption is a physical process where the water vapour is bound to the adsorption
material by molecular adhesion forces. The water is thus adsorbed on the surface of a solid
adsorption material (desiccant) which does not react chemically with the water.
 There is no need for exchange of desiccant, but it must be dried or regenerated periodically.
 This method of drying gives the lowest dewpoint of the compressed air.
 Required properties of material:
– High water adsorption capacity

– High mechanical strength
– Long service life
– Low dewpoint
– Resistant to free water drops
– Maintain low pressure drop
– The most common desiccants are silicagel and activated alumina used for dewpoints down to -50°C to -
60°C.
– If even lower dewpoints are required, molecular sieves can be used.
Activated Alumina
+ Low price
+ Resistant to free water
+ Robust
Silical Gel
- Requires higher reactivation
(regeneration) temperature
+ Low regeneration temp (50 °C
- Less adsorption capacity than lower than Alumina)
Silica gel
+ Better adsorption capacity
(approx +30% than Alumina)
+/- Some types are resistant to

Molecular Sieves free water
+ Good for high inlet temp - More expensive (approx. +70 to

+ Very low dew points 80 % than Alumina)
+ Resistant to free water
- Expensive.
- Requires much energy for reactivation
Water vapour transfers to This means:
the desiccant
That, the amount of water
being taken out of the air is
because… stable, and therefore a dew
point -40°C is constant from
desiccant has a greater the beginning to the end of
attraction for water than air. the cycle.
Also:
But:
If the dryer vessel continues
The attraction slowly decreases to accept air, the PDP would
as the desiccant gets wet slowly decay. After about 90
minutes it would be around -
20°C. If the PDP becomes
Meaning : positive, the desiccant is
ruined.
that the wet layer slowly rises
Finally:
up the tower, as dry desiccant
is more attractive than wet
For a -70°C PDP, more water
desiccant. After the half cycle
attractive desiccant is
time, the wet layer is almost at
needed.
the top of the dryer.
Things To Remember: Crucial Parameters
The more desiccant used, If the air temperature increases,

the longer the vessel can the wet layer reaches the top
more quickly.
keep the desire dew point.
Inlet pressure effecs the dryer

The dryer gives the most performance.
optimum performance when
the desiccant is suited to the Because:
PDP required
A desiccant bed is sized for a fixed
actual volume of inlet gas,
In order that the dryer
meaning the higher the pressure
performance to reliable and
the more FAD can be dried
stable, we add much more
desiccant than the minimum
required
Examples:
Tower dryers:
Heatless (cold) regenerated: CD dryer
Heat regenerated : BD dryer,

AD dryer
XD dryer
Rotative dryers: MD dryer

Principle: combinations
X
+
Principle: osmosis
OSMOSIS/MEMBRANE TECHNOLOGY
Water
air
molecular
membrane
 Atlas Copco dryer families
 FD range: Refrigeration dryer

 FX range : Refrigeration dryer
 CD range: Cold regenerated two-tower adsorption dryer (no heater, no blower)
 AD range: Heat regenerated two-tower adsorption dryer (heater, no blower)
 BD range:Heat regenerated two-tower adsorption dryer (heater & blower)
 MD range: Rotary adsorption dryer for Z-compressors (regenerated by hot
compressed air)
 XD range: Heat regenerated two-tower adsorption dryer ( for very high flows (ZH))
 SD range : Membrane dryer .
Dewpoint measurements
 Temperature Measuring :  Dew point direct Measuring :

 Normally used in Cooling  Here we measure the real
operated dryers where we dewpoint of the air using special
measure the LAT (lowest air sensors that can measure the
temperature) which is the air water content in the air and gives
temp. after heat exchange with the equivalent temp.
Fereon.
 Like in CD,BD,MD,XD dryers
 Like in FD,FX dryers
7- Air Filtration
Introduction
What is A line Filter ??
A filter is...
A product which removes contaminants from the air, like solids, liquids
and vapors.
Why filtration?
When the compressed air is not filtered, and led as such to for example construction equipment,
industrial end-products, medical applications, etc., the contaminants may damage the customer’s instruments,
contaminate the end product, and even endanger a patient’s health .

Reasons
–Equipment damage
–Contamination of end product
–Endanger patient’s health
–…
27
Filtration of compressed air
QDT PDp
oil vapor dust
OIS
DD PD
Major contaminants in compressed
oil aerosol oilair
aerosol
– Oil is present in case of oil-injected compressor
 Removed by DD, PD, QD/QDT QD DDp

oil vapor dust
– Dust is introduced by intake air and released by compressor installation itself
 Removed by DDp, PDp (dry conditions)
 Removed by DD, PD (wet conditions)
28
ISO 8573-1:2010
Purity classes
For example:
class 1.4.1 means
Dirt: max 20.000 particles in the range of 0.1-0.5 µm, 400 particles of 0.5-1 µm and 10 of 1-5 µm
Water: max 3°C PDP
Oil: max 0,01 mg/m³
class 2.4.2 means
Dirt: max 400.000 particles in the range of 0.1-0.5 µm, 6.000 particles of 0.5-1 µm and 100 of 1-5 µm
Water: max 3°C PDP
Oil: max 0,1 mg/m³
29
ISO 8573-1:2010
Typical installations
1:2:1
1:-:2
2:-:3 1:4:1
1:2:1
1:4:1
and WSD
30
Performance/types
DD filter:
• The DD filter is a general-purpose protection and liquid removal filter, the IDD filter is a DD filter modified
to be integrated in a compressor. The filters are equipped with an electronic water drain.
•The filter element removes liquid water and oil,

leaving a maximum remaining liquid content in the outgoing compressed air of 0.1 mg/m3 when the
compressed air temperature is 20 ˚C (68 ˚F),
•the operating pressure is 7 bar(e) (100 psig) and the oil concentration at the inlet of the filter is below 3
mg/m3. The maximum inlet temperature is 66 ˚C (150 ˚F).
DDp filter:
•The DDp filter is a dust filter.
•The element traps the solid particles down to 1 micrometer for 100 %, down to 0.01
micrometer for 99.9 %.The maximum inlet temperature is 66 ˚C (150 ˚F).
31
Performance/types
PD filter:
•The PD filter is a high-efficiency dust, liquid and aerosol removal filter for compressed air. The filters are
equipped with an electronic water drain.
•The filter element traps the solid particles down to 0.01 micrometer. The oil/water aerosols liquefy and the
so-formed drops collect and are removed by the automatic drain. The maximum remaining oil content in the
outgoing compressed air is 0.01 mg/m3 at a compressed air temperature of 20 ˚C (68 ˚F) and an operating
pressure of 7 bar(e) (100 psig). The maximum inlet temperature is 66 ˚C (150 ˚F).
PDp filter:
•The PDp filter is a high-efficiency dust filter.
•The filter element traps the solid particles down to 0.01 micrometer. The element traps the solid particles
down to 1 micrometer for 100 %, down to 0.01 micrometer for 99.9 %. The maximum inlet temperature is
66 ˚C (150 ˚F).
QD filter:
•The QD filter is an oil vapour and odour removal filter up to a remaining oil content of maximum 0.003
mg/m3 at a compressed air temperature of 20 ˚C (68 ˚F) and an operating pressure of 7 bar(e) (100
psig).The air flows through the activated carbon, which is contained in the filter element. The maximum
inlet temperature is 35 ˚C (95 ˚F).
32
Performance/types
• The oil particles are removed by DD, PD, QD filters.

• The dust particles are removed by DDp and PDp filters (in case of dry
conditions, i.e. no oil) or by DD and PD filters (in case of wet
conditions, i.e. oil-injected compressors)
Components
34
Components
35
Function
• Air enters the element from inside

• Oil aerosols are coalecsing/creating drops in the filter paper.
• Drops are separated/drained in the outer filter foam
36
Function
• Dust particles enters the element from out side, particles can easily be drained via the bottom valve
•all DDp filters are as standard equipped with a manual drain valve at the bottom of the filter housing.
37
Function
PD
Purpose: High performance oil filtration PDp
Performance:Oil aerosol down to Purpose: High performance particle filtration
0,01mg/m3 (and particles down to 0,01 Performance: Particles down to 0,01 micron.
micron.
Pressure drop: 0,08 bar
Pressure drop (wet): 0,2 bar in
DD DDp
Purpose: General performance oil
Purpose: General performance particle
filtration
filtration
Performance:Oil aerosol down to
Performance: Particles down to 1 micron.
0,1mg/m3 (and particles down to 1
micron. Pressure drop: 0,05 bar
Pressure drop (wet): 0,12 bar
38
UD PLUS
The Nautilus Filter Technology is the heart of the UD+ filter
DD+ + PD+ > UD+
180 mbar 215 mbar 245 mbar
395 mbar 40% pressure drop reduction
+ =
Best-in-class efficiency
Line Filter Cartridge Service Interval: No compromise on performance
Coalescing filters: 4000 running hours Or 1 year of
installation
39
Service intervals
new filter elements
 Replace DD+ and PD+ after … (whatever comes first)
– 4000 operating hours
– one year
 Replace DDp+ and PDp+ after … (whatever comes first)

– 4000 operating hours
– one year
– pressure drop reaches 350 mbar
 Replace QD+ after … (whatever comes first)

– 1000 operating hours (at 20ºC)
– one year
 Replace QDT after … (whatever comes first)

– 4000 operating hours (at 35ºC)
– one year
8- Compressed Air System Arrangement

8. Compressed Air System Arrangement
Complete Compressed Air System Installation design

8. Compressed Air System Arrangement
Compressor room ventilation
• The heat must be removed to maintain the
temperature in the compressor room at an
acceptable level.
• The required ventilation flow can be calculated
according to the following:
• Ventilation air should be taken from outdoors, preferably without using long ducting.
• The intake should be placed as low as possible.
• The ventilation fan/fans should be placed high up on one of the room’s end walls.
• the air intake placed on the opposite wall.
• The air velocity at the ventilation inlet opening should not exceed 4 m/s.
• The quantity of ventilation air must be sufficient to limit the temperature increase in the room to 7–
10°C.
43
Committed to sustainable
productivity.
45

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Air Theory

Objectives & Contents

 At the end of the courses students will be able to:

1. Understand the basic Fundamentals of compressed air.

 Chapter 2 : Basic Definitions

 Chapter 3 : Applications of compressed air

 Chapter 4 : Types of Compressors

 Chapter 5 : Working Principals

 Chapter 6 : Air Drying

 Chapter 7 : Air Filtration

 Chapter 8 : Compressed Air System Arrangement

 We live at the bottom of a sea called

 Atmosphere is made up of Air

 Air is a colorless, odorless and tasteless

Other gases H2O up to 4% at 40°C; atm

 Air is a gaseous envelope that surrounds

 Actual air pressure depends on your

 Air press on the earth = Atmospheric

 Height ↑ 1000m => pressure

 Compress: To press together or force

 When controlled, this compressed air

 If the volume of a given amount of

Volume ↓ => Pressure ↑

Pressure in the ball Pressure in the ball Pressure in the ball

i.e. Absolute pressure

Atmospheric Atmospheric Atmospheric

Pressure in the ball = 2 bar

 The pressure in the ball is equal to

0 bar  The effective pressure is 0.

 The absolute pressure in the ball is 3 bar

Absolute pressure = 3 bar

 2.1 Absolute Pressure

 2.2 Pressure Ratio

 2.3 Relative Humidity

 2.4 Dew Point

Sm3/hr, Im3/hr, Free air m3/min, FAD

 Free Air Delivery (FAD m3/min or L/s or cfm)

 Inlet Air Delivery (I m3/min, ICFM or I l/s)

 Actual Air delivery (m3/min) (Site Conditions)

 Standard Air Delivery (Sm3/min or SCFM)

 Normal Air Delivery (Nm3/hr)

 2.6 Normal Air Conditions :(e.g. Nm3/hr)

 2.7 Standard Air Conditions :

 2.9 Specific Energy Requirement (joules/liter)

*This is significant for a multi stage compressor

3. Applications of compressed air

Food & Beverage

Medical and dental applications

Chemical and Petrochemical plants Gas separation and nitrogen production

Construction and other industries Water treatment and fish farming

And many other applications

Air Motors Pumps Tools Sensing

Pneumatically operated machinery

 Compressed air is used in different applications in different industies.

 Based on the number of compression elements/stages

 Based on the operating pressure

 Based on the flow rate

 Based on the cooling method

Positive Displacement Dynamic