UNIT:IV

Optical Communication and Signal

degradation

Sathyabama Institute of science and Technology,Chennai-119

 Syllabus
Optical Communication and Signal Degradation

Evolution of fiber optic system- Element of an Optical Fiber

Transmission link– Total internal reflection-Acceptance angle –
Numerical aperture – Skew rays Ray Optics-Optical Fiber Modes and
Configurations -Mode theory of Circular Wave guides Linearly Polarized
Modes -Single Mode Fibers-Graded Index fiber structure. Attenuation –
Absorption losses, Scattering losses, Bending Losses, Core and Cladding
losses, Signal Distortion in Optical Wave guides-Information Capacity
determination -Group Delay-Material Dispersion, Wave guide
Dispersion.
 Element of Optical Fiber Transmission link
An optical fiber communications link
consists of the following elements:
An electro-optical transmitter,
which converts analog or digital
information into a modulated beam of
light;
A light-carrying fiber, which spans the
transmission path;
An optoelectronic receiver, which
converts detected light into an electric
.
In fiber optic communication, signals are transmitted
through an optical fiber. This is based upon certain
characteristics of light, namely refraction and total
internal reflection.
Refraction
When a light ray goes from a denser transmission
medium to a rarer one or vice versa, then its direction
changes at the interface of the two medium. This
phenomenon is called refraction of light.
The density of an optical medium is measured in
refractive index. Higher the refractive index, denser it
is.
The angle between the incident ray and the normal is
called angle of incidence, while the angle between the
refracted ray and the normal is called the angle of
refraction, When light travels from denser to rarer
medium, the angle of refraction is greater than the
 Critical Angle and Total Internal Reflection
For light propagating from denser medium to
rarer medium, if the angle of refraction is 90°,
the corresponding angle of incidence is called
critical angle.
If a light ray is an incident at the interface of two
media with an angle greater than the critical
angle, it is completely reflected back to the
denser medium. This phenomenon is called total
internal reflection.
 Transmission of Light in Fiber Optic Cable

Optical fibers use total internal reflection to transmit light. It has a solid core
of dense glass surrounded by a less dense cladding.
The light ray passing through the inner core is reflected back instead of being
refracted to the rarer cladding.
Theoretically, there should not be any loss of light waves due to total internal
reflection. However, attenuation of light occurs depending upon the
wavelength of light waves and the properties of the glasses. The three
commonly used wavelength bands for propagation are 0.85 microns, 1.30
microns, and 1.55 microns.
 Total internal reflection
Total internal reflection, in physics, complete reflection of a ray of light within a medium such
as water or glass from the surrounding surfaces back into the medium.
Total internal reflection (TIR) is the optical phenomenon in which waves arriving at the
interface (boundary) from one medium to another (e.g., from water to air) are not refracted into
the second ("external") medium, but completely reflected back into the first ("internal")
medium.
The phenomenon occurs if the angle of incidence is greater than a certain limiting angle, called
the critical angle.
Some examples of total internal reflection in daily life are the formation of a mirage, shining of
empty test-tube in water, shining of crack in a glass-vessel, sparkling of a diamond,
transmission of light rays in an optical fibre, etc.
 In a primary rainbow (most common), light enters a water droplet, undergoes refraction at the
interface, is total internally reflected from the inside and again undergoes refraction at the
interface before reaching your eye.
The phenomenon of total internal reflection of light is used in many optical instruments like
telescopes, microscopes, binoculars, spectroscopes, periscopes etc. The brilliance of a diamond
is due to total internal reflection. Optical fibre works on the principle of total internal reflection.
 Fiber optics is one application of total internal reflection that is
in wide use. In communications, it is used to transmit
telephone, internet, and cable TV signals.
 Fiber optics employs the transmission of light down fibers of
plastic or glass. Because the fibers are thin, light entering one
is likely to strike the inside surface at an angle greater than the
critical angle and, thus, be totally reflected.
 The index of refraction outside the fiber must be smaller than
inside, a condition that is easily satisfied by coating the Light entering a thin fiber may strike
outside of the fiber with a material having an appropriate the inside surface at large or grazing
refractive index. In fact, most fibers have a varying refractive angles and is completely reflected if
index to allow more light to be guided along the fiber through these angles exceed the critical angle.
total internal refraction. Rays are reflected around corners as Such rays continue down the fiber,
shown, making the fibers into tiny light pipes. even following it around corners,
since the angles of reflection and
incidence remain large.
Fiber optics has revolutionized surgical techniques and observations within
the body.
There are a host of medical diagnostic and therapeutic uses. The flexibility
of the fiber optic bundle allows it to navigate around difficult and small
regions in the body, such as the intestines, the heart, blood vessels, and
joints.
Transmission of an intense laser beam to burn away obstructing plaques in
major arteries as well as delivering light to activate chemotherapy drugs are
becoming commonplace.
 Optical fibers have in fact enabled microsurgery and remote surgery where
the incisions are small and the surgeon’s fingers do not need to touch the
diseased tissue.
Fibers in bundles are surrounded by a cladding
material that has a lower index of refraction than the
core.
The cladding prevents light from being transmitted
between fibers in a bundle. Without cladding, light
could pass between fibers in contact, since their indices
of refraction are identical.
Since no light gets into the cladding (there is total
internal reflection back into the core), none can be
transmitted between clad fibers that are in contact with
one another.
The cladding prevents light from escaping out of the
fiber; instead most of the light is propagated along the
length of the fiber, minimizing the loss of signal and Fibers in bundles are clad by a material that
ensuring that a quality image is formed at the other has a lower index of refraction than the core
to ensure total internal reflection, even when
end. fibers are in contact with one another. This
 The cladding and an additional protective layer make shows a single fiber with its cladding. The
optical fibers flexible and durable. cladding prevents light from being transmitted
between fibers in a bundle.
Most telephone conversations and Internet communications are now carried by
laser signals along optical fibers.
Extensive optical fiber cables have been placed on the ocean floor and
underground to enable optical communications.
Optical fiber communication systems offer several advantages over electrical
(copper) based systems, particularly for long distances.
 The fibers can be made so transparent that light can travel many kilometers
before it becomes dim enough to require amplification—much superior to copper
conductors.
This property of optical fibers is called low loss. Lasers emit light with
characteristics that allow far more conversations in one fiber than are possible
with electric signals on a single conductor.
This property of optical fibers is called high bandwidth. Optical signals in one
fiber do not produce undesirable effects in other adjacent fibers. This property of
optical fibers is called reduced crosstalk.
 Colored diamonds get their color from structural
defects of the crystal lattice and the inclusion of minute
quantities of graphite and other materials.
 The Argyle Mine in Western Australia produces around
90% of the world’s pink, red, champagne, and cognac
diamonds, while around 50% of the world’s clear
diamonds come from central and southern Africa.
 Total internal reflection, coupled with a large index of
refraction, explains why diamonds sparkle more than
other materials. Light cannot easily escape a diamond, because its
 The critical angle for a diamond-to-air surface is only critical angle with air is so small. Most reflections
24.4º, and so when light enters a diamond, it has are total, and the facets are placed so that light can
trouble getting back out. exit only in particular ways—thus concentrating the
light and making the diamond sparkle.
 Although light freely enters the diamond, it can exit
only if it makes an angle less than 24.4º. Facets on
diamonds are specifically intended to make this
unlikely, so that the light can exit only in certain
places.
 Good diamonds are very clear, so that the light makes
many internal reflections and is concentrated at the few
places it can exit—hence the sparkle.
 Acceptance angle

Acceptance angle is the maximum angle with the axis of the optical
fiber at which light can enter the fiber, in order to be propagated
through it.
The light rays that are outside this acceptance cone are not accepted
by the optical fiber, that's why it is known as acceptance cone.
Acceptance Angle in solar(an example)
Acceptance angle is the maximum angle at which incoming sunlight
can be captured by a solar concentrator. Its value depends on the
concentration of the optic and the refractive index in which the
receiver is immersed.
The acceptance angle is ½ angle of the maximum cone of light
that can enter or exit the fiber. The incident angle is greater than the
critical angle so that the light undergoes TIR down the fiber.
 Skew rays
Skew rays are rays that travel through an optical fiber without passing through its
axis.
 A possible path of propagation of skew rays is shown in figure. provides an
angled view and view (b) provides a front view.
 Skew rays are those rays which follow helical path but they are not confined to
a single plane. Skew rays are not confined to a particular plane so they cannot
be tracked easily. Analyzing the meridional rays is sufficient for the purpose of
result, rather than skew rays, because skew rays lead to greater power loss.
 Skew rays propagate without passing through the center axis of the fiber.
 The acceptance angle for skew rays is larger than the acceptance angle of
meridional rays.
 Skew rays are often used in the calculation of light acceptance in an optical
fiber. The addition of skew rays increases the amount of light capacity of a Figure: The helical path taken by a
fiber. In large NA fibers, the increase may be significant. skew ray in an optical fiber:
 The addition of skew rays also increases the amount of loss in a fiber. Skew (a) skew ray path down the fiber;
rays tend to propagate near the edge of the fiber core. A large portion of the (b) cross-sectional view of the fiber
number of skew rays that are trapped in the fiber core are considered to be
leaky rays.
 Leaky rays are predicted to be totally reflected at the core-cladding boundary.
However, these rays are partially refracted because of the curved nature of the
fiber boundary. Mode theory is also used to describe this type of leaky ray
 Ray Optics
In geometry, a ray can be defined as a part of a line that has a fixed starting point but no end
point. It can extend infinitely in one direction. On its way to infinity, a ray may pass through more
than one point. When naming a ray, it is denoted by drawing a small ray on top of the name of the
ray.
In optics a ray is an idealized geometrical model of light, obtained by choosing a curve that is
perpendicular to the wavefronts of the actual light, and that points in the direction of energy flow.
An optical fiber is a thin, transparent fiber, usually made of glass or plastic, for transmitting light.
The construction of a single optical fiber. The basic functional structure of an optical fiber
consists of an outer protective cladding and an inner core through which light pulses travel.
Geometrical optics, or ray optics, is a model of optics that describes light propagation in terms of
rays. The ray in geometric optics is an abstraction useful for approximating the paths along which
light propagates under certain circumstances.
While there are numerous names for types of light rays, the most common ones are incident rays,
reflected rays, and refracted rays
 Optical Fiber Modes and Configurations
 There are basically three types of optical fiber: single-mode, multimode graded index, and multimode step-index.
They are characterized by the way light travels down the fiber and depend on both the wavelength of the light and
the mechanical geometry of the fiber.
Optical Fiber Configuration
 Its function is to electrical signals from the electrical end machine for light emitted from the light source is
modulated, become modulated light, and then the modulated optical signal is coupled into an optical fiber or optical
cable to transmit.
 Fiber-optic cable has two propagation modes: multimode and single mode.
 When the light wave is guided down a fiber-optic cable, it exhibits certain modes.
 These are variations in the intensity of the light, both over the cable cross section and down the cable length.
Based on the number of
modes, they are
classified as

1. Single mode fiber

2. Multimode fiber

Based on the refractive

index profile, they are
classified as

1. Step- index fiber

2. Graded index fiber

 Propagation Modes

 Fiber-optic cable has two propagation modes: multimode and single mode.
 They perform differently with respect to both attenuation and time dispersion.
 The single-mode fiber-optic cable provides much better performance with lower attenuation.
 To understand the difference between these types, you must understand what is meant by "mode of
propagation."
 Light has a dual nature and can be viewed as either a wave phenomenon or a particle phenomenon that
includes photons and solitons.
 Solitons are special localized waves that exhibit particle-like behavior. For this discussion, let's consider the
wave mechanics of light.
 When the light wave is guided down a fiber-optic cable, it exhibits certain modes. These are variations in the
intensity of the light, both over the cable cross section and down the cable length.
 These modes are actually numbered from lowest to highest. In a very simple sense, each of these modes can
be thought of as a ray of light. For a given fiber-optic cable, the number of modes that exist depends on the
dimensions of the cable and the variation of the indices of refraction of both core and cladding across the cross
section.
 The various modes include multimode step index, single-mode step index, single-mode dual-step index, and
multimode graded index.
 Structure:
Core diameter : 5-10μm
Single mode Cladding diameter : Generally
around 125μm
Protective layer : 250 to 1000μm
Numerical aperture : 0.08 to 0.10
Band width : More than 50MHz km.
Application:
Because of high bandwidth, they are used in
long haul communication systems

Multi mode
Structure:
Core diameter : 50-350μm
Cladding diameter: 125μm - 500μm
Protective layer : 250 to 1100μm
Numerical aperture : 0.12 to 0.5
Band width : Less than 50MHz km.
Application: Because of its less band
width it is very useful in short haul
communication systems.
Multimode Step Index

 Consider the illustration in Figure. This diagram corresponds to multimode propagation with a
refractive index profile that is called step index.
 As you can see, the diameter of the core is fairly large relative to the cladding.
 There is also a sharp discontinuity in the index of refraction as you go from core to cladding.
 As a result, when light enters the fiber-optic cable on the left, it propagates down toward the right in
multiple rays or multiple modes.
 This yields the designation multimode. As indicated, the lowest-order mode travels straight down the
center.
 It travels along the cylindrical axis of the core. The higher modes, represented by rays, bounce back
and forth, going down the cable to the left.
 The higher the mode, the more bounces per unit distance down to the right.
 Multimode Step Index
The illustration also shows the input pulse and the resulting output pulse.
Note that the output pulse is significantly attenuated relative to the input pulse. It
also suffers significant time dispersion. The reasons for this are as follows.
The higher-order modes, the bouncing rays, tend to leak into the cladding as they
propagate down the fiber-optic cable.
They lose some of their energy into heat. This results in an attenuated output
signal.
The input pulse is split among the different rays that travel down the fiber-optic
cable. The bouncing rays and the lowest-order mode, traveling down the center
axis, are all traversing paths of different lengths from input to output.
Consequently, they do not all reach the right end of the fiber-optic cable at the
same time. When the output pulse is constructed from these separate ray
components, the result is chromatic dispersion.
Multimode fiber optic cable has a large diametral core that allows
multiple modes of light to propagate. Because of this, the number of
light reflections created as the light passes through the core increases,
creating the ability for more data to pass through at a given time.
 Single-Mode Step Index

Single-mode propagation is illustrated in Figure. This diagram corresponds to single-

mode propagation with a refractive index profile that is called step index.
As the figure shows, the diameter of the core is fairly small relative to the cladding.
Because of this, when light enters the fiber-optic cable on the left, it propagates down
toward the right in just a single ray, a single mode, which is the lowest-order mode.
 In extremely simple terms, this lowest-order mode is confined to a thin cylinder around
the axis of the core. The higher-order modes are absent.
 Single-Mode Step Index
 Consequently, extremely little or no energy is lost to heat through the leakage of the higher modes into the cladding,
because they are not present.
 All energy is confined to this single, lowest-order mode. Because the higher-order mode energy is not lost, attenuation is
not significant.
 Also, because the input signal is confined to a single ray path, that of the lowest-order mode, very little chromatic
dispersion occurs. Single-mode propagation exists only above a certain specific wavelength called the cutoff wavelength.
 The cutoff wavelength is the smallest operating wavelength when SMFs propagate only the fundamental mode. At this
wavelength, the second-order mode becomes lossy and radiates out of the fiber core. As the operating wavelength
becomes longer than the cutoff wavelength, the fundamental mode becomes increasingly lossy.
 The higher the operating wavelength is above the cutoff wavelength, the more power is transmitted through the fiber
cladding. As the fundamental mode extends into the cladding material, it becomes increasingly sensitive to bending loss.
Comparing the output pulse and the input pulse, note that there is little attenuation and time dispersion. Lower chromatic
dispersion results in higher bandwidth.
 However, single-mode fiber-optic cable is also the most costly in the premises environment. For this reason, it has been
used more with metropolitan- and wide-area networks than with premises data communications. Single-mode fiber-optic
cable has also been getting increased attention as local-area networks have been extended to greater distances over
corporate campuses. The core diameter for this type of fiber-optic cable is exceedingly small, ranging from 8 microns to
10 microns. The standard cladding diameter is 125 microns.
 SINGLE MODE STEP INDEX FIBER
 A single mode step index fiber consists of a very thin core of uniform refractive index surrounded by a cladding of
refractive index lower than that of core.
 The refractive index abruptly changes at the core cladding boundary. Light travels along a side path, i.e., along the axis
only. So zero order modes is supported by Single Mode Fiber.
 MULTIMODE STEP INDEX FIBER

 A multimode step index fiber consists of a core of uniform refractive index surrounded by cladding of refractive
index lower than that of the core. The refractive index abruptly changes at the core cladding boundary.
 The core is of large diameter. Light follows zigzag paths inside the fiber. Many such zigzag paths of propagation are
permitted in Multi Mode Fiber. The Numerical Aperture of a Multi mode fiber is larger as the core diameter of the
fiber is larger.
 GRADED INDEX FIBER

GRIN fiber is one in which refractive index varies radially, decreasing continuously in a parabolic manner from the
maximum value of n1, at the center of the core to a constant value of n2 at the core cladding interface.

 In graded index fiber, light rays travel at different speeds in different parts of the fiber because the refractive
index varies through out the fiber. Near the outer edge, the refractive index is lower. As a result, rays near the
outer edge travel faster than the rays at the center of the core.
 Because of this, rays arrive at the end of the fiber at approximately the same time. In effect light rays arrive at
the end of the fiber are continuously refocused as they travel down the fiber. All rays take the same amount of
time in traversing the fiber. This leads to small pulse dispersion.
 PROPAGATION OF LIGHT IN GRIN FIBER

 Let na, nb,nc,nd etc be the refractive index of different layers in

graded index fiber with na > nb> nc> nd etc. then the propagation of
light through the graded index fiber is as shown in the figure.
 Here, since na > nb the ray gets refracted. Similarly since nb> nc, the
ray gets refracted and so on.
 In a similar manner, due to decrease in refractive index the ray gets
gradually curved towards the upward direction and at one place ,
where in it satisfies the condition for total internal reflection,(ϕ > ϕc )
it is totally internally reflected .
 The reflected rays travels back towards the core axis and without
crossing the fiber axis, it is refracted towards downwards direction
and again gets totally internally reflected and passes towards upward
direction.
 In this manner the ray propagates inside the fiber in a helical or spiral
manner.
 Multimode Step Index / Single-Mode Step Index
Multimode Step Index Single-Mode Step Index
Multimode step index fibres have larger Single mode step index fibres have less
core diameter (50 to 200 μm) and the core diameter (<10 μm) and the
difference between the refractive indices of difference between the refractive indices of
core and cladding is large. core and cladding is very small.

Step-index multimode fibers are mostly single mode or monomode step index
used for imaging and illumination. fiber allows the propagation of only one
Graded-index multimode fibers are used traverse electromagnetic mode and hence
for data communications and networks the core diameter must be of the order of 2
carrying signals moderate distances - µm to 10µm.
typically no more than a couple of It has high information carrying capacity.
kilometers. Modal-Dispersion and Limit
on Step-Index Multimode Fibers'
Bandwidth.
 Multimode Step Index / Single-Mode Step Index
In multimode light follows multiple paths Single mode fiber: a fiber featuring a small
through the fiber core. In graded light-carrying core of about 9 micrometers
index, index of refraction is not constant (µm) in diameter. ... Multimode fiber: a
but vary smoothly across the fiber with a core of 50 µm or above. A
diameter of the core. larger core means multiple modes (or rays
Index of refraction is maximum at the of light) can travel down the core
center of the core. Index of refraction is simultaneously.
constant for cladding part of the fiber.
Multi-mode optical fiber is a type of The single mode gives a higher
optical fiber mostly used transmission and up to 50 times more
for communication over short distances, distance than the multimode. The core
such as within a building or on a campus. from a single mode cable is smaller than
Multi-mode links can be used for data rates one from a multimode. ... It designed to
up to 100 Gbit/s. transmit data over long distances, thus
making it perfect for cable television
networks or college campuses
 Mode theory of Circular Wave guides
The mode theory uses electromagnetic wave behavior to describe the propagation of
light along a fiber.
A set of guided electromagnetic waves is called the modes of the fiber. For a given
mode, a change in wavelength can prevent the mode from propagating along the fiber.
The optical waveguide is the fundamental element that interconnects the various
devices of an optical integrated circuit. Optical waves travel in the waveguide in
distinct optical modes. A mode, in this sense, is a spatial distribution of
optical energy in one or more dimensions that remains constant in time.
The mode theory uses electromagnetic wave behavior to describe the propagation
of light along a fiber. For a given mode, a change in wavelength can prevent
the mode from propagating along the fiber.
If the mode is no longer bound to the fiber, this mode is said to be cut off.
The wavelength at which a mode is cutoff is called the cutoff wavelength for
that mode. However, an optical fiber is always able to propagate at least one
mode. This mode is referred to as the fundamental mode of the fiber. The
fundamental mode can never be cut off.
Mode in Rectangular waveguide
The total reflection inside the rectangular waveguide results in either an electric field or
magnetic field component in the direction of propagation. When the electric fields are normal to
the direction of propagation, they form the TE modes in a rectangular waveguide
Transverse electric (TE) modes.
 No electric field in the direction of propagation. Transverse magnetic (TM) modes. No magnetic field in
the direction of propagation. These are sometimes called E modes because there is only an electric field
along the direction of propagation.
Advantage of circular Waveguide
The circular waveguide are easier to manufacture than rectangular waveguides and are easier to
join. The TM01 modes are rotationally symmetrical and hence rotation of polarization can be overcome.
TE01 mode in circular for long distance waveguide transmission .
Depending upon the shapes they are designated as rectangular or circular. Both types of waveguide
behaves much like a High Pass Filter and is basically a passive microwave device.
Dominant mode
In a waveguide that can support more than one propagation mode, the mode that propagates
with the minimum degradation, i.e. , the mode with the lowest cutoff frequency.
 Mode theory of Circular Wave guides
Mode in waveguide
Waveguide mode stands for a unique distribution of transverse and longitudinal
components of the electric and magnetic fields. There are two types of waveguide modes
that can propagate in the waveguides: TE (Transverse Electric) and TM (Transverse
Magnetic).
The wavelength that prevents the next higher mode from propagating is called the cutoff
wavelength of the fiber. An optical fiber that operates above the cutoff wavelength (at a
longer wavelength) is called a single mode fiber. An optical fiber that operates below the
cutoff wavelength is called a multimode fiber.
A waveguide is a hollow metal tube (rectangular or circular in cross section) that transmits
electromagnetic energy from one place to another. A waveguide with a circular cross-section is
called as Circular Waveguide. It supports both transverse electric (TE) and transverse magnetic
(TM) modes.
A circular waveguide is a tubular, circular conductor. A plane wave propagating through circular
waveguide results in transverse electric (TE) or transverse magnetic (TM) mode. In a circular
waveguide, TE11 mode has the lowest cut-off frequency and is, therefore, the dominant mode.
propagation mode
 The manner in which radio signals travel from a transmitting antenna to a receiving antenna,
such as ground wave, sky wave, direct wave, ground reflection, or scatter
 Mode theory for Circular waveguide
 The wavelength that prevents the next higher mode from propagating is called the cutoff
wavelength of the fiber. An optical fiber that operates above the cutoff wavelength (at a longer
wavelength) is called a single mode fiber. An optical fiber that operates below the cutoff
wavelength is called a multimode fiber.
 Maxwell's equations describe electromagnetic waves or modes as having two components. The
two components are the electric field, E(x, y, z), and the magnetic field, H(x, y, z). The electric
field, E, and the magnetic field, H, are at right angles to each other.
 Modes traveling in an optical fiber are said to be transverse. The transverse modes,propagate
along the axis of the fiber. In TE modes, the electric field is perpendicular to the direction of
propagation. The magnetic field is in the direction of propagation.
 Another type of transverse mode is the transverse magnetic (TM) mode. TM modes are opposite
to TE modes. In TM modes, the magnetic field is perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
The electric field is in the direction of propagation. Fig. shows only TE modes
 Mode theory for Circular waveguide

 The TE mode field patterns shown in Fig. indicate the order of each mode. The
order of each mode is indicated by the number of field maxima within the core
of the fiber.
 For example, TE0 has one field maxima. The electric field is maximum at the
center of the waveguide and decays toward the core-cladding boundary.
 Mode theory for Circular waveguide

 Fig. illustrates light rays as they travel down the fiber. These light rays
indicate the direction of the wave-fronts. High-order modes cross the axis of
the fiber at steeper angles. Low-order and high-order modes are shown in Fig.
Low-order modes penetrate the cladding only slightly.
 In low-order modes, the electric and magnetic fields are concentrated near the
center of the fiber. In high-order modes, the electrical and magnetic fields are
distributed more toward the outer edges of the fiber. The penetration of low-
order and high-order modes into the cladding region indicates that some
portion is refracted out of the core.
 Mode theory for Circular waveguide
As the core and the cladding modes travel along the fiber, mode coupling
occurs. Mode coupling is the exchange of power between two modes. Mode
coupling to the cladding results in the loss of power from the core modes.
Mode theory for Circular waveguide
 Modes in fiber optics
 There are two broad classifications of modes: radiation modes and guided modes. Radiation modes carry
energy out of the core; the energy is quickly dissipated.
 Guided modes are confined to the core, and propagate energy along the fiber, transporting information and
power.
Linear Effects in Optical Fibre
 The majority losses of optical transmission signal through optical fibers are caused by linear effects. These
linear effects are dispersion and optical signal loss called attenuation. The attenuation represents transmission
loss, which means the decreasing level of the signal power with increasing length.
 Linearly Polarized Modes
 A mode for which the field components in the direction of propagation are small compared to components perpendicular to
that direct
 Dominant mode: In a waveguide that can support more than one propagation mode, the mode that propagates with the
minimum degradation, i.e. , the mode with the lowest cutoff frequency.
 Single Mode Fibers

 Single mode fiber has a small light-carrying core of 8 to 10 microns (μm) in diameter.
 It is normally used for long distance transmissions with laser diode-based fiber optic transmission equipment.
Single mode fiber, due to its advanced design, has infinite bandwidth.
 Single-mode fibre are used almost universally in telecommunications over 1 km or so and are
generally used at the 1300 nm and 1550 nm wavelengths where attenuation is low and sources and
detectors are available.
 Single Mode fiber optic cable has a small diametral core that allows only one mode of light to
propagate. Because of this, the number of light reflections created as the light passes through the core
decreases, lowering attenuation and creating the ability for the signal to travel further.
 Graded Index fiber structure

 Graded Index fiber is another type of optical fiber in which the refractive index of the
core is non-uniform. This non-uniformity is present because the refractive index is
higher at the axis of the core and continuously reduces with the radial movement away
from the axis.
 Graded-index (GI) fibre reduces multimode dispersion by grading the refractive index of
the core so that it smoothly tapers between the core centre and the cladding.
 The ray propagating along the fiber axis takes the shortest path, but travels most
slowly as the index is the largest along this path.
 On the other hand, oblique rays take the longer path, but they have a large part of their
path with lower refractive index, thus they travel faster.
 Losses in Optical Fiber
Losses in optical fiber:
Absorption loss,
Scattering loss,
Dispersion loss,
Radiation loss,
Coupling loss.
Attenuation
 Attenuation Loss
Attenuation is the reduction in power of the light signal as it is
transmitted. Attenuation is caused by passive media
components such as cables, cable splices, and connectors.
Attenuation loss: Generally considered to be the lumped
together sum of losses produced through absorption, spreading,
scattering, reflection, and refraction.
Absorption loss: The process whereby acoustic energy is
absorbed by a material, thus producing heat. Absorption loss
increases with higher frequency.
Absorption losses
Scattering losses
Linear Scattering
Non Linear Scattering
Bending Losses
 Core and Cladding losses
 The core and cladding of most fibers are made of ultra-pure glass, although some fibers are all plastic or a
glass core and plastic cladding.
 Fiber Bragg gratings (FBGs) couple a relatively small amount of propagating light from the core of the
optical fiber into the cladding. This conduct is referred to as cladding mode coupling. The light coupled into
the cladding will progressively be lost in the cladding as the propagating energy moves along the fiber.
Core Loss
 When a beam of light carrying signals travels through the core of fiber optic, the strength of the light will
become lower. Thus, the signal strength becomes weaker. This loss of light power is generally called fiber
optic loss or attenuation.
 The core is the light-carrying portion of the fiber. The cladding surrounds the core. The cladding is made of a
material with a slightly lower index of refraction than the core.
 The cladding increases the critical angle within the core fibre and also prevents adjacent fibres from touching
each other. The fewer the reflections the less energy loss, and the shorter the time of transfer of information
down the fibre since the light travels a shorter distance.
 Cladding prevents light from being transmitted between fibers in a bundle. Diamonds sparkle due to total
internal reflection coupled with a large index of refraction.
 If the edge of the glass tube becomes scratched or chipped, the normal to the edge will no longer be uniform.
Thus different parts of the beam traveling through the pipe will strike the edge at different angles of
incidence.
 Signal Distortion in Optical Wave guide
Signal distortion causes the optical pulses to broaden as they travel along a fiber, the
overlap between neighboring pulses, creating errors in the receiver output, resulting in
the limitation of information-carrying capacity of a fiber.
 The factors causing distortion in optical fiber
1) Intrinsic loss in the fiber material. (2) Scattering due to micro irregularities inside the
fiber. (3) Micro-bending losses due to micro-deformation of the fiber. (4) Bending or
radiation losses on the fiber.
Distortion in optical fibers are material dispersion and waveguide dispersion.
 Material dispersion is a phenomenon in which different optical wavelengths propagate
at different velocities, depending on the refractive index of the material used in the fiber
core.
 Information Capacity determination
 In electronic communication channels the information capacity is the maximum amount of information
that can pass through a channel without error, i.e., it is a measure of channel “goodness.” The actual
amount of information depends on the code— how information is represented.
 The information carrying capacity of a communication channel is directly proportional to the range of
frequencies it can transmit, its frequency bandwidth.
 The shorter the pulse, the more pulses, and therefore more information, can be carried in a given period
of time.
5 Factors Affecting Fiber Optic Cabling Performance
• Correct specification of fiber optic cabling. Make sure you have the correct fiber optic cabling installed
for the speed you wish your network to run. ...
• Quality of construction. ...
• Cable tightness. ...
• Patching. ...
• Make sure that the fibers being used are correct.
 Group Delay
Group delay in optics
In an optical fiber, group delay is the transit time required for optical power,
traveling at a given mode's group velocity, to travel a given distance.
Group delay is a measurement of the time taken by the modulated signal to
get through the system. Group Delay is measured in seconds. For an ideal filter,
the phase will be linear and the group delay would be constant.
 The rate of change of the total phase shift with respect to angular frequency
d𝞱/dω….Where 𝞱 is the total phase shift,ω is the angular frequency
 In an optical fiber, the transit time required for optical power traveling at a
given mode’s group velocity, to travel a given distance. Note: For optical
fiber dispersion measurement purposes, the quantity of interest is group delay per
unit length, which is the reciprocal of the group velocity of a particular mode. The
measured group delay of a signal through an optical fiber exhibits
a wavelength dependence due to the various dispersion mechanisms present in the
fiber.
Dispersion Loss
Material Dispersion
 Wave guide Dispersion
Waveguide dispersion occurs because light travels in both the core
and cladding of a single-mode fiber at an effective velocity between
that of the core and cladding materials. The waveguide dispersion
arises because the effective velocity, the waveguide dispersion,
changes with wavelength.
One way to reduce modal dispersion is to use graded-index fiber.
Unlike the two distinct materials in a step-index fiber, the graded-
index fiber's cladding is doped so that the refractive index gradually
decreases over many layers.