Unit 4

Knowledge Representation -Knowledge based agents – The Wumpus

world – Propositional Logic - syntax, semantics and knowledge base
building - inferences – reasoning patterns in propositional logic –
predicate logic – representing facts in logic: Syntax and semantics –
Unification – Unification Algorithm - Knowledge representation using
rules - Knowledge representation using semantic nets - Knowledge
representation using frames inferences - Uncertain Knowledge and
reasoning Methods
 Knowledge and Reasoning
• Knowledge representation and reasoning (KR, KRR) is the part of Artificial
intelligence which is concerned with AI agents thinking and how thinking
contributes to intelligent behavior of agents.
• It is responsible for representing information about the real world so that a
computer can understand and can utilize this knowledge to solve the complex
real world problems such as diagnosis a medical condition or communicating
with humans in natural language.
• It is also a way which describes how we can represent knowledge in artificial
intelligence.
• Knowledge representation is not just storing data into some database, but it
also enables an intelligent machine to learn from that knowledge and
experiences so that it can behave intelligently like a human.
 Knowledge and Reasoning
Kind of Knowledge which needs to be represented in AI systems:
• Object: All the facts about objects in our world domain.
• E.g., Guitars contains strings, trumpets are brass instruments.
• Events: Events are the actions which occur in our world.
• Performance: It describe behavior which involves knowledge about how to
do things.
• Meta-knowledge: It is knowledge about what we know.
• Facts: Facts are the truths about the real world and what we represent.
• Knowledge-Base: The central component of the knowledge-based agents is
the knowledge base. It is represented as KB.
Different Types of Knowledge
• Declarative Knowledge – It includes
concepts, facts, and objects and expressed in
a declarative sentence.
• Structural Knowledge – It is a basic
problem-solving knowledge that describes
the relationship between concepts and
objects.
• Procedural Knowledge – This is responsible
for knowing how to do something and
includes rules, strategies, procedures, etc.
• Meta Knowledge – Meta Knowledge defines
knowledge about other types of Knowledge.
• Heuristic Knowledge – This represents some
expert knowledge in the field or subject.
Cycle of Knowledge Representation in AI
• The Perception component retrieves data or
information from the environment.
• The Learning Component that learns from the
captured data by the perception component.
• The main component in the cycle is Knowledge
Representation and Reasoning which shows the
human-like intelligence in the machines. Knowledge
representation is all about understanding intelligence.
• The Planning and Execution components depend on
the analysis of knowledge representation and
reasoning. Here, planning includes giving an initial
state, finding their preconditions and effects, and a
sequence of actions to achieve a state in which a
particular goal holds. Now once the planning is
completed, the final stage is the execution of the
entire process.
 Approaches to knowledge Representation
• Representational adequacy: It is the ability to represent all of the kinds
of knowledge that are needed in that domain.
• Inferential Adequacy: The ability to manipulate the representation
structures in such a way as to derive new structures corresponding to
new knowledge inferred from old.
• Inferential Efficiency: The ability to incorporate into the knowledge
structure additional information that can be used to focus the attention
of the inference mechanism in the most promising directions.
• Acquisitioned Efficiency: The ability to acquire new information
easily. The simplest case involves direct insertion by a person of new
knowledge into the database.
Issues in Knowledge Representation
 Issues in Knowledge Representation
1. Attributes are the most important ones that have an impact on the representation. It is
required to understand and identify the important attributes. This helps in absorbing the
important parameters for the KB representation.
2. Similarly, identifying the relationships among the attributes in the representation is
equally important. Reasoning about values that are taken up also adds up complexities in
the selection process. Hence, proper selection of the attributes impacts the relationships.
3. Handling the issue of level or up to what depth the mapping of the knowledge is to be
done defines the granularity. This is governed by the availability of facts and the level
upto which it is possible to split them and represent them. Sometimes, splitting can prove
to be an option to handle the issue, making the easy accessibility, but sometimes, it adds
complexities to handle the data.
4. Further, the issue is representation of the objects as sets.
5. Finally, selection of correct structure is the most important part to have a proper
representation
 Various levels of knowledge-based agents
1. Knowledge level
• Knowledge level is the first level of knowledge-based agent, and in this level, we need to
specify what the agent knows, and what the agent goals are.
• With these specifications, we can fix its behavior.
• For example, suppose an automated taxi agent needs to go from a station A to station B, and he knows
the way from A to B, so this comes at the knowledge level.
2. Logical level
• At this level, we understand that how the knowledge representation of knowledge is stored.
• At this level, sentences are encoded into different logics, and encoding of knowledge into
logical sentences occurs.
• At the logical level we can expect to the automated taxi agent to reach to the destination B.
3. Implementation level
• This is the physical representation of logic and knowledge.
• At the implementation level agent perform actions as per logical and knowledge level.
• At this level, an automated taxi agent actually implement his knowledge and logic so that he can reach
 Wumpus world
• The Wumpus world is a simple world example to illustrate the worth of a
knowledge-based agent and to represent knowledge representation.
• It was inspired by a video game Hunt the Wumpus by Gregory Yob in 1973.
The Wumpus world is a cave which has 4/4 rooms connected with passageways. So there are
total 16 rooms which are connected with each other. We have a knowledge-based agent who
will go forward in this world. The cave has a room with a beast which is called Wumpus, who
eats anyone who enters the room. The Wumpus can be shot by the agent, but the agent has a
single arrow. In the Wumpus world, there are some Pits rooms which are bottomless, and if
agent falls in Pits, then he will be stuck there forever. The exciting thing with this cave is that
in one room there is a possibility of finding a heap of gold. So the agent goal is to find the gold
and climb out the cave without fallen into Pits or eaten by Wumpus. The agent will get a
reward if he comes out with gold, and he will get a penalty if eaten by Wumpus or falls in the
pit.
Wumpus
Game
 Wumpus Game
There are also some components which can help the agent to navigate
the cave. These components are given as follows:
• The rooms adjacent to the Wumpus room are smelly, so that it would
have some stench.
• The room adjacent to PITs has a breeze, so if the agent reaches near to
PIT, then he will perceive the breeze.
• There will be glitter in the room if and only if the room has gold.
• The Wumpus can be killed by the agent if the agent is facing to it, and
Wumpus will emit a horrible scream which can be heard anywhere in
the cave.
 PEAS description of Wumpus world:
Performance measure: Actuators:
• +1000 reward points if the agent comes out of the cave
• Left turn,
• Right turn
with the gold.
• Move forward
• -1000 points penalty for being eaten by the Wumpus or • Grab
falling into the pit. • Release
• -1 for each action, and -10 for using an arrow. • Shoot.
Sensors:
• The game ends if either agent dies or came out of the
• The agent will perceive the stench if he is in the room
cave.
adjacent to the Wumpus. (Not diagonally).
Environment: • The agent will perceive breeze if he is in the room
• A 4*4 grid of rooms. directly adjacent to the Pit.
• The agent will perceive the glitter in the room where the
• The agent initially in room square [1, 1], facing toward gold is present.
the right. • The agent will perceive the bump if he walks into a wall.
• Location of Wumpus and gold are chosen randomly • When the Wumpus is shot, it emits a horrible scream
except the first square [1,1]. which can be perceived anywhere in the cave.
• Each square of the cave can be a pit with probability 0.2
except the first square.
 Wumpus World
• Agent's First step: Now agent needs to move forward, so it will
either move to [1, 2], or [2,1]. Let's suppose
agent moves to the room [2, 1], at this room
agent perceives some breeze which means Pit is
around this room. The pit can be in [3, 1], or
[2,2], so we will add symbol P? to say that, is
this Pit room?

Now agent will stop and think and will not

make any harmful move. The agent will go
back to the [1, 1] room. The room [1,1], and
[2,1] are visited by the agent, so we will use
symbol V to represent the visited squares.
 Wumpus World
• Agent’s third step: At the third step, now agent will move to the room [1,2]
which is OK. In the room [1,2] agent perceives a stench
which means there must be a Wumpus nearby. But
Wumpus cannot be in the room [1,1] as by rules of the
game, and also not in [2,2] (Agent had not detected any
stench when he was at [2,1]). Therefore agent infers that
Wumpus is in the room [1,3], and in current state, there is
no breeze which means in [2,2] there is no Pit and no
Wumpus. So it is safe, and we will mark it OK, and the
agent moves further in [2,2].
Agent's fourth step:
At room [2,2], here no stench and no breezes present so
let's suppose agent decides to move to [2,3]. At room [2,3]
agent perceives glitter, so it should grab the gold and climb
out of the cave.
 Propositional logic in Artificial intelligence
• Propositional logic (PL) is the simplest form of logic where all the
statements are made by propositions. A proposition is a declarative
statement which is either true or false. It is a technique of knowledge
representation in logical and mathematical form.
Example:
• a) It is Sunday.
• b) The Sun rises from West (False proposition)
• c) 3+3= 7(False proposition)
• d) 5 is a prime number.
 Basic facts about propositional logic:
• Propositional logic is also called Boolean logic as it works on 0 and 1.
• In propositional logic, we use symbolic variables to represent the logic, and we can use
any symbol for a representing a proposition, such A, B, C, P, Q, R, etc.
• Propositions can be either true or false, but it cannot be both.
• Propositional logic consists of an object, relations or function, and logical connectives.
• These connectives are also called logical operators
• Connectives can be said as a logical operator which connects two sentences.
• A proposition formula which is always true is called tautology, and it is also called a valid
sentence.
• A proposition formula which is always false is called Contradiction.
• Statements which are questions, commands, or opinions are not propositions such as
"Where is Rohini", "How are you", "What is your name", are not propositions.
Syntax of propositional logic
• The syntax of propositional logic defines the allowable sentences for the knowledge representation.
There are two types of Propositions:
• Atomic Propositions
• Compound propositions
Atomic Proposition: Atomic propositions are the simple propositions. It consists of a single
proposition symbol. These are the sentences which must be either true or false.
Example:
a) 2+2 is 4, it is an atomic proposition as it is a true fact.
b) "The Sun is cold" is also a proposition as it is a false fact.
Compound proposition: Compound propositions are constructed by combining simpler or atomic
propositions, using parenthesis and logical connectives.
Example:
a) "It is raining today, and street is wet."
b) "Ankit is a doctor, and his clinic is in Mumbai."
 Logical Connectives
Logical connectives are used to connect two simpler propositions or representing a
sentence logically. We can create compound propositions with the help of logical
connectives. There are mainly five connectives, which are given as follows:
• Negation: A sentence such as ¬ P is called negation of P. A literal can be either
Positive literal or negative literal.
• Conjunction: A sentence which has ∧ connective such as, P ∧ Q is called a
conjunction.
Example: Rohan is intelligent and hardworking. It can be written as,
P= Rohan is intelligent,
Q= Rohan is hardworking. → P∧ Q.
• Disjunction: A sentence which has ∨ connective, such as P ∨ Q. is called disjunction,
where P and Q are the propositions.
Example: "Ritika is a doctor or Engineer",
Here P= Ritika is Doctor. Q= Ritika is Doctor, so we can write it as P ∨ Q.
 Logical Connectives

• Implication: A sentence such as P → Q, is called an implication. Implications are

also known as if-then rules. It can be represented as
If it is raining, then the street is wet.
Let P= It is raining, and Q= Street is wet, so it is represented as P → Q
• Biconditional: A sentence such as P⇔ Q is a Biconditional sentence, example If
I am breathing, then I am alive
P= I am breathing, Q= I am alive, it can be represented as P ⇔ Q.
 Truth Table

• In propositional logic, we need to know the truth values of propositions in all possible
scenarios. We can combine all the possible combination with logical connectives, and the
representation of these combinations in a tabular format is called Truth table.
Truth Table:
Truth table with three propositions:
We can build a proposition composing three propositions P, Q, and R. This truth table is made-up of 8n Tuples as we
have taken three proposition symbols.
Precedence of connectives:
Just like arithmetic operators, there is a precedence order for propositional connectors or
logical operators. This order should be followed while evaluating a propositional
problem. Following is the list of the precedence order for operators:
 Limitations of Propositional logic:
• We cannot represent relations like ALL, some, or none with propositional
logic.
Example:
• All the girls are intelligent.
• Some apples are sweet.
• Propositional logic has limited expressive power.
• In propositional logic, we cannot describe statements in terms of their
properties or logical relationships.