Nervous System

Nervous system
Introduction
• The nervous system is the primary coordinating
and controlling system of the body.
• It monitors internal and external changes, analyzes
the information, makes conscious or unconscious
decisions, and then takes appropriate action.
• All of these activities occur almost
instantaneously because communication within
the nervous system is by electrochemical impulses
that flow rapidly over neurons and from neuron to
neuron.
Functions of Nervous system
• Detection of internal and external changes;
• Analysis of the information received;
• Organization of the information for immediate
and future use; and
• Initiation of the appropriate actions.
The nervous system has two divisions.
• The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the
brain and spinal cord.
• The CNS is the body’s neural control center.
• It receives incoming information (impulses), analyzes
and organizes it, and initiates appropriate action.
• The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is located
outside of the CNS and consists of cranial and spinal
nerves and sensory receptors.
• The PNS carries impulses formed by receptors, such
as pain and sound receptors, to the CNS, and it carries
impulses from the CNS to effectors, glands and
muscles, that carry out actions directed by the CNS.
Nerve Tissue
• The nervous system consists of organs
composed primarily of nerve tissue supported
and protected by connective tissues.
• There are two types of cells that compose
nerve tissue:
1. Neurons and
2. Neuroglial cells.
Neuron
• Neurons or nerve cells, are delicate cells that
are specialized to transmit neural impulses.
They are the structural and functional units of
the nervous system.
• Neurons may vary in size and shape, but they
have many common features.
• The cell body is the portion of a neuron that
contains the large, spherical nucleus. The cell
body also contains the usual cytoplasmic
organelles.
• Two types of neuron processes extend from
the cell body: dendrites and axons. A neuron
may have many dendrites, but it has only one
axon.
• Dendrites are usually short, highly branched
processes that receive impulses from other
neurons and sensory receptors. Dendrites carry
impulses toward the cell body and axon.
• An axon or nerve fiber, is a long, thin process of a neuron. It
may have one or more side branches, and it forms a number of
short, fine branches, the axon terminals, at its tip.
• The slightly enlarged tips of the axon terminals are the synaptic
knobs, which form junctions (synapses) with other neurons,
muscles, or glands.
• An axon carries impulses away from the cell body or dendrites.
• Axons are enclosed in an insulating myelin sheath formed by
special neuroglial cells. Such nerve fibers are said to be
myelinated.
• The myelin sheath increases the speed of impulse transmission.
• The tiny spaces between adjacent myelin-forming cells, where
the axon is exposed, are known as nodes of Ranvier.
Types of Neurons
• Neurons may be classified according to their anatomy or their function.
• Structurally, there are three basic types of neurons: multipolar, bipolar, and unipolar neurons
• Multipolar neurons have several dendrites and a single axon extending from the cell body. Most of the neurons whose cell
bodies are located in the brain and spinal cord are multipolar neurons.
• Bipolar neurons have only two processes: a dendrite and an axon extending from opposite ends of the cell body. Bipolar
neurons occur in the sensory portions of the eyes, ears, and nose.
• Unipolar neurons have a single process extending from the cell body. This process quickly divides into two branches
extending in opposite directions, and these branches function as a single axon. Unipolar neurons carry impulses from
sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord. Clusters of cell bodies of unipolar neurons often form ganglia (aggregations
• Functionally there are three types of neurons: sensory neurons, interneurons, and motor neurons.
• Sensory neurons carry impulses from the peripheral parts of the body to the CNS. Their dendrites are associated
with sensory receptors or are specialized to detect homeostatic changes directly. Impulses are carried over an
axon within cranial or spinal nerves to the CNS. Cell bodies of sensory neurons are located outside the CNS in
ganglia. Most sensory neurons are unipolar neurons.
• Interneurons are located entirely within the CNS and synapse with other neurons. They are responsible for the
processing and interpretation of impulses by the CNS. Interneurons receive impulses from sensory neurons and
transmit them from place to place within the CNS, and they activate motor neurons to produce actions by
muscles or glands. Interneurons are multipolar neurons.
• Motor neurons carry impulses from the CNS to effectors, muscles, and glands to produce an action. Their cell
bodies and dendrites are located within the CNS, and their axons are located in cranial and spinal nerves. Motor
Neuroglia
• The neuroglia or neuroglial cells, provide support

and protection for neurons.
• Only one type of neuroglial cell—Schwann cells—
occurs in the PNS.
• Four types of neuroglial cells occur in the CNS,
where they are even more numerous than neurons
Schwann cells • Schwann cells
occur only in the
peripheral
nervous system,
where they form
the myelin sheath
around axons.
• They wrap tightly
around an axon
many times so
the nucleus and
most of the
cytoplasm are
squeezed into the
outermost layer.
• Oligodendrocytes form the
Neuroglial cells in CNS myelin sheath of myelinated
neurons within the CNS.
• Astrocytes are the primary
supporting cells for neurons in the
brain. They also stimulate the
growth of neurons, and form the
blood–brain barrier , which
regulates the exchange of
materials between the blood and
neurons.
• Microglial cells are scattered
throughout the CNS, where they
keep the tissues clean by
engulfing and digesting cellular
debris and bacteria.
• Ependymal cells form an
epithelial-like lining of cavities in
the brain and spinal cord.
Central Nervous system
• Both the brain and spinal cord are soft, delicate
organs that would be easily damaged without
adequate protection.
• Surrounding bones and fibrous membranes
provide both protection and support.
• The brain occupies the cranial cavity formed by
the cranial bones, and the spinal cord lies within
the vertebral canal formed by the vertebrae.
• Three membranes are located between the central
nervous system and the surrounding bones. These
membranes are collectively called the meninges.
Meninges
• The meninges consist of three membranes arranged in

layers. From innermost to outermost, they are the pia
mater, arachnoid mater, and dura mater.
• The pia mater is the very thin, innermost membrane. It

tightly envelops both the brain and spinal cord. It contains
many blood vessels.
• The arachnoid mater is the middle membrane. It is a thin,
web like membrane without blood vessels. Between the pia
mater and arachnoid mater is the subarachnoid space,
which contains cerebrospinal fluid. This clear, watery liquid
serves as a shock absorber around the brain and spinal cord.
• The dura mater is the tough, fibrous outermost layer.
Brain
• The brain is a large,

complex organ.
• It contains about billions
of neurons .
• The brain consists of four
major components:
1. cerebrum,
2. cerebellum,
3. diencephalon, and
4. brain stem
Cerebrum
• The cerebrum is the
largest portion of the
brain.
• It performs the higher
brain functions involved
with sensations, voluntary
actions, reasoning,
planning, and problem
solving.
Structure of
Cerebrum
• The cerebrum consists of the

left and right cerebral
hemispheres.
• The surface of the cerebrum
has numerous folds called
gyri. The shallow grooves
called sulci .
• Each cerebral hemisphere is
divided into four lobes. Each
lobe is named for the cranial
bone under which it lies.
• 1. The frontal lobe
• 2. The parietal lobe
• 3. The temporal lobe
• 4. The occipital lobe
Diencephalon
• The diencephalon is a small but important part
of the brain.
• It lies between the brain stem and the
cerebrum of the brain
It consists of two major components:
• 1. The thalamus and
• 2. The hypothalamus
Thalamus receives and relays sensory impulses
to the cerebrum and motor impulses to lower
brain centers.
• Hypothalamus serves as a major control center
for the autonomic nervous system.
• Controls water and mineral balance, heart rate
and blood pressure, appetite and digestive
activity, body temperature, and sexual
response.
• Is involved in sleep and wakefulness and in
emotions of anger and fear. Regulates
functions of the pituitary gland.
Brain Stem
• The brain stem is the
stalk-like portion of the
brain that joins higher
brain centers to the
spinal cord.
• The components of the
brain stem include the
midbrain, pons, and
medulla oblongata.
• Mid brain - Relays sensory impulses from the
spinal cord to the thalamus and motor
impulses from the cerebrum to the spinal cord.
• Pons - Relays impulses between the midbrain
and the medulla. Helps medulla control
breathing.
• Medulla oblongata - Relays impulses
between the brain and spinal cord. Centers that
control heart rate, breathing, swallowing,
vomiting, coughing, sneezing.
Cerebellum
• The cerebellum is located behind the top part

of the brain stem (where the spinal cord meets
the brain) and is made of two hemispheres
(halves).
• The cerebellum coordinates voluntary
movements such as posture, balance,
coordination, and speech.
Spinal cord
• The spinal cord is continuous with the brain.

• It descends from the medulla oblongata
through the foramen magnum into the
vertebral canal.
• The spinal cord is cylindrical in shape.
• Thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves branch from
the spinal cord.
Functions
• The spinal cord has two basic functions.
• It transmits impulses to and from the brain,.
• Impulses are transmitted to and from the brain
by neurons.
• Ascending (sensory) tracts carry impulses to
the brain; descending (motor) tracts carry
impulses from the brain.

Nervous System

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Nervous system

• The neuroglia or neuroglial cells, provide support

• The meninges consist of three membranes arranged in

• The pia mater is the very thin, innermost membrane. It

• The brain is a large,

• The cerebrum consists of the

• The cerebellum is located behind the top part

• The spinal cord is continuous with the brain.

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