CELL

MODULE 2

DIVISION
• All living things contain what we call the genetic material that serves as the
set of instructions that direct the activities and functions of the cells.
• These genetic materials, also known as the deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA, are
passed on from one generation to the next to ensure the continuity of life.
• In eukaryotic cells (cells with organelles), the DNA are bound with proteins
and are organized as beads on strings to form chromosomes in the nucleus of

the cell.
• The number of chromosomes in a cell is characteristic of the
species to which it belongs.
• For example, humans have 46 chromosomes.
• The chromosomes of a cell change form as the cell transitions
from one stage to another in a typical cell cycle.
• The cell cycle may be divided into two stages: the
interphase where the chromosomes are long and extended
and are also referred to as chromatin, and the cell division
phase where the chromosomes become condensed or
thickened.
• The interphase refers to the period that follows one cell division and
precedes another.
• During this stage, the cell does not divide; it merely grows.
• The chromosome doubles or replicates itself because the DNA
molecule contained in the chromosome produces an exact copy of
itself.
• The interphase is divided into three substages.
• The stage from the formation of a new cell until it begins to replicate its DNA
is called the first gap period or G1, during which time the cell grows initially.
• This stage is characterized by protein and ribonucleic acid (RNA) synthesis.
• RNA, which is synthesized based on the DNA, is then used to synthesize
proteins.
• The middle stage of interphase, called the synthesis stage or S, is the period of
DNA synthesis or replication.
• The chromosomes are duplicated in preparation for the next cell division.
• The second gap period or G2, falls between the S period and the next cell
division or M (mitosis or meiosis) phase.
• G2 represents a period of rapid cell growth to prepare for cell division
• During interphase, the nucleus is clearly visible as a distinct membrane bound
organelle.
• In stained cells, this membrane can be clearly seen under the light microscope.
• One or more nucleoli are visible inside the nucleus.
• On the other hand, the chromosomes cannot be clearly seen.
• They appear as an irregular mass that is grainy in appearance because the DNA they
contain are stretched out thinly in the nucleus.
• This facilitates the replication of DNA during the S phase.
• During interphase, the nucleus is clearly visible as a distinct membrane bound
organelle.
• In stained cells, this membrane can be clearly seen under the light microscope.
• One or more nucleoli are visible inside the nucleus.
• On the other hand, the chromosomes cannot be clearly seen.
• They appear as an irregular mass that is grainy in appearance because the DNA they
contain are stretched out thinly in the nucleus.
• This facilitates the replication of DNA during the S phase.
 Cell Division
Alternating with the interphase is the cell division
phase. In eukaryotic cells, there are two types of cell
division: mitosis and meiosis.
 Mitosis
Mitosis is a type of cell division produces two
identical body or somatic cells with the same
number of chromosomes for growth and
development. It involves one cell division only.
Mitosis is divided into four stages: prophase,
metaphase, anaphase and telophase.
 Stage A: Prophase
The nuclear membrane and nucleoli may still be present. The
chromosomes are thicker and shorter because of repeated
coiling. At this stage, each chromosome is made up of two
identical sister chromatids as a consequence of replication of
DNA during the S phase. The two chromatids produced from
one chromosome are still attached at one point, called the
centromere.
 Stage A: Prophase
• The centromere may divide the chromosome into the shorter
arms, also called the p arms (‘p’ stands for petite in French)
and the longer q arms.
• If the chromosomes are stained using Giemsa, alternating
dark and light regions will appear.
• These are the heterochromatin and euchromatin,
respectively.
• The heterochromatin are more coiled and dense than the
euchromatin.
 Stage B: Metaphase
• The nuclear membrane has disappeared while the
highly coiled chromosomes align at the metaphase
plate, an imaginary plane equidistant between the
cell’s two poles.
• Spindle fibers are also formed. Each fiber binds to a
protein called the kinetochore at the centromere of
each sister chromatid of the chromosome
 Stage C: Anaphase.
• The paired centromeres of each chromosome separate
towards the opposite poles of the cells as they are
pulled by the spindle fibers through their
kinetochores. This liberates the sister chromatids.
Each chromatid is now regarded as a full fledged
chromosome and is only made up of one sister
chromatid.
 Stage D: Telophase
• The chromosomes are now at the opposite poles of the
spindle. They start to uncoil and become indistinct under the
light microscope. A new nuclear membrane forms around
them while the spindle fibers disappear, opposite to the
events that happen in prophase. There is also cytokinesis or
the division of the cytoplasm to form two separate daughter
cells immediately after mitosis
• The number of chromosomes normally remains the same
within the species. It does not double or triple for every
generation. This suggests that a different kind of cell
division must take place in an individual. This kind of cell
division is called meiosis, from a Greek word which means
“to make smaller.” Meiosis reduces the chromosome number
in half. It takes place in plants and animals whenever
gametes, or sex cells, are formed through the process called
gametogenesis.
 Meiosis
is a special type of cell division where the cell undergoes two rounds of cell division

to produce four daughter cells (sex cells) for the purpose of reproduction, each with

half the chromosome number (haploid) as the original parent cell and with a unique

set of genetic material as a result of exchange of chromosome segments during the

process of crossing over.

Haploid refers to half of the number of chromosomes in cells.

The first round of meiotic division, also known as meiosis I,
consists of four stages: prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I,
and telophase I.
Prophase I of meiosis I, unlike its counterpart in mitosis, is
more elaborate and should be understood well in order to grasp
the mechanisms of heredity
 Meiosis
is a special type of cell division where the cell undergoes two rounds of cell division

to produce four daughter cells (sex cells) for the purpose of reproduction, each with

half the chromosome number (haploid) as the original parent cell and with a unique

set of genetic material as a result of exchange of chromosome segments during the

process of crossing over.

Haploid refers to half of the number of chromosomes in cells.

 Stage A: Prophase I.

Meiosis starts with this stage

and includes the following
substages:
 Zygotene

The chromosomes begin to pair off. Pairs of

chromosomes are called homologous
chromosomes, and this pairing process is
exact.
 Leptotene

Each chromosome is made up of two long

threads of sister chromatids as a result of
replication during the S phase of the cell cycle.
 Pachytene

The chromosomes contract due to repeated coiling. Crossing over takes place during
this stage where a segment of a sister chromatid of one chromosome is exchanged
with the same segment of the sister chromatid of the homologous chromosome
through the formation of a cross-linkage of the segments called a chiasma (Figure 4).
After crossing over, the sister chromatids of each chromosome may no longer be
identical with each other based on the genetic material they contain.325 Figure 4.
Crossing over of homologous chromosomes during meiosis I.
 Diplotene

The chromosomes begin to uncoil. Diakinesis.

The paired chromosomes disperse in the
nucleus.
 Stage B: Metaphase I.

The paired chromosomes

arrange themselves along the
equatorial plate.
 Stage C: Anaphase I.
Spindle fibers form and attach to the centromeres of the
chromosomes. The homologous chromosomes separate
from each other completely and start their movement
toward the poles of the cells as they are pulled by the
spindle fibers.

As the centromere of each chromosome does not

divide, the sister chromatids remain together.
 Stage D: Telophase I
This is the stage when the chromosomes reach their
respective poles. Cytokinesis follows and two
daughter cells are formed. Each cell now has only
half the chromosome number because only one
chromosome from each pair goes to the daughter
cell.
 Stage D: Telophase I
This is called the haploid condition,
in contrast to the diploid condition at
the beginning of meiosis I where each
chromosome pair is intact. Telophase
I is followed by interphase II.
Note that each chromosome still has two sister chromatids; it is therefore necessary for

the cells to undergo another round of division. The second meiotic division, also known

as meiosis II, is mitotic in nature and consists of the following stages: prophase II,

metaphase II, anaphase II and telophase II; these stages are identical with the mitotic

stages. The results are four cells, two from each daughter cell from meiosis I, with one

half the diploid chromosome number and with only one sister chromatid for each

chromosome.
 THE WHOLE PROCESS
PROPHASE
ANAPHASE
ANAPHASE
PROPHASE

METAPHASE
TELOPHASE TELOPHASE
METAPHASE

FIRST PHASE SECOND PHASE

PROPHASE 1
The chromosomes condense and the
nucleolus breaks down.

As chromosomes move around,

crossing over happens - this means
genetic material can be exchanged.
LET’S LOOK
AT THE
STAGES OF
MEIOSIS
PROPHASE 2
Phase 2 happens to allow 4 haploid
sex cells (sperm and egg cells) to be
created.

The chromosomes condense and the

nucleolus breaks in both cells.
METAPHASE 2
The chromosomes align single file in
the centre of the cell.

This occurs to ensure sister chromatids

separate in the next stage.
 ANAPHASE 2
Sister chromatids separate and
move to opposite ends of the cell.

This ensures the daughter cells remain haploid -

that means they have half the genetic material of
the original parent cell.
TELOPHASE 2
Four new nuclei form around each
set of chromosomes

The cytoplasms split and four (haploid)

daughter cells are formed.
THANK
YOU!