Mineragraphy

Part 1
Theory of Light
 Light
• Light is electromagnetic radiation that has properties of waves. The
electromagnetic spectrum can be divided into several bands based on the
wavelength of the light waves.

• Visible light represents a narrow group of wavelengths between about 380

nm (1 nm = 10-9 m) and 730 nm.

• Our eyes interpret these wavelengths as different colors.

• If only a single wavelength or limited range of wavelengths are present and

enter our eyes, they are interpreted as a certain color. If a single
wavelength is present we say that we have monochromatic light.

• If all wavelengths of visible light are present, our eyes interpret this as white
light.

• If no wavelengths in the visible range are present, we interpret this as dark.

Figure 1: Some of the various types of electromagnetic radiation
as defined by wavelength. Visible light has a spectrum that ranges
from 0.40 to 0.71 micrometers (μm).
 Light and its interaction with crystalline
matter
The optical properties of crystals are, next to x-ray
diffraction and direct chemical analyses, the most
reliable properties available to distinguish and
identify minerals.

The optical properties depend on the manner that visible

light is transmitted through the crystals or reflected
from the crystals, and thus are dependent on crystal
structure, crystal symmetry, and chemical
composition of the mineral.

In order to understand the optical properties of crystals we

must first understand something about light and how it
interacts with matter.
 Interaction of Light with Matter

Velocity of Light and Refractive Index

The energy of light is related to its frequency and velocity as follows:

E = hn = hC/l

where E = energy
h = Planck's constant, 6.62517 x 10-27 erg.sec
n = frequency
C = velocity of light = 2.99793 x 1010 cm/sec
l = wavelength

• The velocity of light, C, in a vacuum is 2.99793 x 1010cm/sec. Light cannot

travel faster than this, but if it travels through a substance, its velocity will
decrease. Note that from the equation given above: C = nl

• The frequency of vibration, n, remains constant when the light passes through
a substance. Thus, if the velocity, C, is reduced on passage through a
substance, the wavelength, l, must also decrease.
 refractive index
• refractive index, n, of a material or substance is the ratio of the
speed of light in a vacuum, C, to the speed of light in a material
through which it passes, Cm:

n = C/Cm

• Note that the value of refractive index will always be greater than
1.0, since Cm can never be greater than C. In general, Cm
depends on the density of the material, with Cm decreasing with
increasing density. Thus, higher density materials will have higher
refractive indices.

• The refractive index of any material depends on the wavelength of

light because different wavelengths are interfered with to different
extents by the atoms that make up the material. In general refractive
index varies linearly with wavelength.
 Reflection, Refraction of Light,
When light strikes an interface between two substances with different
refractive indices, two things occur.

1. An incident ray of light striking the interface at an angle, i, measured between

a line perpendicular to the interface and the propagation direction of the
incident ray, will be reflected off the interface at the same angle, i. In other
words the angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence.

2. If the second substance is

transparent to light, then a ray of
light will enter the substance with
different refractive index, and will be
refracted, or bent, at an angle r, the
angle of refraction. The angle of
refraction is dependent on the angle
of incidence and the refractive index
of the materials on either side of the
interface according to Snell's Law:
ni sin (i) = nr sin (r)
Note that if the angle of incidence is 0º (i.e. the light enters perpendicular to the
interface) that some of the light will be reflected directly back, and the refracted
ray will continue along the same path. This can be seen from Snell's law, since
sin(0º) = 0, making sin (r) = 0, and resulting in r = 0.

• There is also an angle, ic, called

the critical angle for total internal
reflection where the refracted ray
travels along the interface between
the two substances.This occurs
when the angle r = 90º. In this
case, applying Snell's law:

• ni sin (ic) = nr sin (90º)=nr

[since sin (90o) = 1]

sin (ic) = nr/ni

In case of water and air
 Complex refractive index

Reflected-light theory:

N = n + ik

N = complex refractive index (same as

transmitted-light)
n = refractive index
k = absorption coeficient
i = complex conjugate
 Reflectance
Reflectance (R%) = intensty of Reflected light x 100 %
intensity of Incident light

R according to Fresnel equation:

R = ((nmin-nmed)2 + k2)/((nmin + nmed)2 + k2)

nmed = index refractive of immersion medium, if the med is air, so n air = 1
nmin = index refractive of mineral
k = absorption coefficient of the mineral
 Absorption of Light
When light enters a transparent material some of its energy is dissipated as heat
energy, and it thus looses some of its intensity. When this absorption of energy
occurs selectively for different wavelengths of light, they light that gets transmitted
through the material will show only those wavelengths of light that are not
absorbed. The transmitted wavelengths will then be seen as color, called the
absorption color of the material.

Sunlight, on passing through the

atmosphere has absorption curve as
shown, thus we see it as white light,
since all wavelengths are present. For example, if we measure the intensity
of light, Io, for each wavelength before
it is transmitted through a material, and
measure the intensity, I, for each
wavelength after it has passed through
the material, and plot I/Io versus
wavelength we obtain the absorption
curve for that material as shown here.
The absorption curve (continuous line)
for the material in this example shows
that the light exiting the material will
have a yellow-green color, called the
absorption color. An opaque
substance would have an absorption
curve such as that labeled "Dark", i.e.
no wavelengths would be transmitted.
 Isotropic & anisotropic
Materials can be divided into 2 classes based on how the velocity of
light of a particular wavelength varies in the material:

• isotropic , velocity of light of a particular wavelength does not

depend on the direction that the light travels. Minerals that
crystallize in the isometric system, glass, gases, most liquids and
amorphous solids are isotropic.

• Anisotropic, velocity of light of a particular wavelength does

depend on the direction that the light travels. These types of
materials will have a range of refractive indices between two
extreme values for each wavelength.
 Uniaxial & biaxial
– Minerals that crystallize in the tetragonal and hexagonal crystal
systems (as well as some plastics) are uniaxial and are
characterized by 2 extreme refractive indices for each
wavelength.

– Minerals that crystallize in the triclinic, monoclinic, and

orthorhombic crystal systems are biaxial and are characterized
by 3 refractive indices, one of which is intermediate between the
other two.

Air, since it is a gas, is isotropic. The refractive index of air is

usually taken as 1.0, although its true value is 1.0003.
 Dispersion of Light
The fact that refractive indices differ for each wavelength of light
produces an effect called dispersion. This can be seen by shining a
beam of white light into a triangular prism made of glass. White light
entering such a prism will be refracted in the prism by different angles
depending on the wavelength of the light.

• The refractive index for longer

• dispersion wavelengths (red) are lower than those
for shorter wavelengths (violet). This
results in the a greater angle of
refraction for the longer wavelengths
than for the shorter wavelengths.
(Shown here are the paths taken for a
wavelength of 800 nm, angle r800 and
for a wavelength of 300 nm, angle
r300 ). When the light exits from the
other side of the prism, we see the
different wavelengths dispersed to
show the different colors of the
spectrum.
 Polarization of Light
• Normal light vibrates equally in all direction perpendicular to its path
of propagation.

• The direction that the light vibrates is called the vibration direction,
which for now will be perpendicular to the direction.

• There are three principles types of polariztions light:

Plane polarized light :
Circularly polarized light :
Eliptically polarized light
• Light consists of oscillating electrical fields, denoted by E, and magnetic
fields, denoted by B. We will concentrate on the electric field component
and ignore the magnetic field; however, we could just as well describe light
and its effects in terms of the magnetic field component. We don't do it
because the interaction of magnetic fields with charged particles is more
complex than electric fields, but we could.
• Light whose electric field oscillates in a particular way is said to be
polarized. If the oscillation is in a plane, the light is said to be plane
polarized (top right). Plane polarized light can be polarized in different
directions. Light can also be circularly polarized, with its electric field
direction spiraling in a screw pattern. Circularly polarized light can be right-
or left-handed (bottom). Light can consist of a combination of plane and
circular polarization as well; its electric field spirals in a screw fashion with
an elliptical cross-section. Such light is called elliptically polarized.
• Although we often speak of "unpolarized" light, every photon of light is
polarized in some manner. "Unpolarized" light is a random mixture of light of
all polarizations. When light has an easily observed dominant polarization,
we refer to it as polarized.
Polarized Light
Light consists of:
oscillating electrical fields, denoted by E,
and magnetic fields, denoted by B.

We will concentrate on the electric field

component and ignore the magnetic field;
however, we could just as well describe light
and its effects in terms of the magnetic field
component.

We don't do it because the interaction of magnetic

fields with charged particles is more complex
than electric fields, but we could.
Light whose electric field oscillates in a particular way is said to be polarized.

If the oscillation is in a plane, the light is said to be plane polarized (top right).
Plane polarized light can be polarized in different directions.

Light can also be circularly polarized, with its electric field direction spiraling in
a screw pattern. Circularly polarized light can be right- or left-handed
(bottom).

Light can consist of a combination of plane and circular polarization as well;

its electric field spirals in a screw fashion with an elliptical cross-section. Such
light is called elliptically polarized.

Although we often speak of "unpolarized" light, every photon of light is

polarized in some manner.

"Unpolarized" light is a random mixture of light of all polarizations. When light

has an easily observed dominant polarization, we refer to it as polarized.
Polarizing Filters
 Natural Polarizer

• Some minerals are natural polarizers.

Tourmaline is one such mineral. Before
polarizing microscopes were developed,
mineralogists used to examine minerals
with "tourmaline tongs", with two slices of
tourmaline serving as the polarizing filters.
 There are two common ways that light can
become polarized:
1. The first involves reflection off of a non-metallic
surface, such as glass or paint. An unpolarized
beam of light, vibrating in all directions
perpendicular to its path strikes such a surface and
is reflected. The reflected beam will be polarized
with vibration directions parallel to the reflecting
surface (perpendicular to the page as indicated by
the open circles on the ray path).

2. If some of this light also enters the material and is

refracted at an angle 90º to the path of the reflected
ray, it too will become partially polarized, with
vibration directions again perpendicular to the path
of the refracted ray, but in the plane perpendicular
to the direction of vibration in the reflected ray (the
plane of the paper, as shown in the drawing).

Polaroid sunglasses use these same principles. For example, incoming solar radiation is
reflected off of the surface of the ocean or the painted hood of your car. Reflected light
coming off of either of these surfaces will be polarized such that the vibration directions are
parallel to the reflected surface, or approximately horizontal (as in the first method of
polarization discussed above). Polaroid sunglasses contain polarizers with the polarization
direction oriented vertically. Wearing such glasses will cut out all of the horizontally
polarized light reflecting off the water surface or hood of your car.
•Polarization can also be achieved by • Anisotropic crystals have this
passing the light through a substance that property in certain directions,
absorbs light vibrating in all directions called privileged directions, and
except one. we will discuss these properties
when we discuss uniaxial and
biaxial crystals.

• Crystals were used to produce

polarized light in microscopes
built before about 1950. The
device used to make polarized
light in modern microscopes is a
Polaroid, a trade name for a
plastic film made by the Polaroid
Corporation. A Polaroid consists
of long-chain organic molecules
that are aligned in one direction
an placed in a plastic sheet.
They are placed close enough to
form a closely spaced linear grid,
that allows the passage of light
vibrating only in the same
direction as the grid. Light
vibrating in all other directions is
absorbed. Such a device is also
called a polarizer